Psych 401 Exam 3

State the subject matter of psychology according to James

"Psychology is the science of mental life, both it's phenomena and their conditions". Phenomena: Found in immediate experiences. Conditions: The importance of the body (brain) for mental life. Have to study consciousness in its natural environment which is the living organism/physical being.

The work of Alfred Binet: Mental testing

- Developed the first truly psychological test of mental ability. - Believed that assessing memory, attention, imagination, and comprehension would provide a more appropriate measure of intelligence. - Introduced the concept of mental age: The age of when kids with the average ability can do most things. Remember things, reverse operations.

Clinical Psychology Movement: The work of Lightner Witmer

- Significant because he opened the first psychology clinic in the world in 1896. - Did not practice psychotherapy - Interested in assessing and treating learning and behavioral problems in school children. - First clinical psychology and so had no examples or precedents to go off of. - Recognized emotional and cognitive problems could be affected by physical problems: Believed that maybe the physical problems are the issues instead of the emotional. - Nature vs. Nurture: Maybe they did not do better in school because their parents were not that good either. He says it is not necessarily nature but rather nurture: He shifts.

The work of James McKeen Cattell: Mental testing

- Used the term in an 1890 article. - Tests of motor skills and sensory capabilities - Not the same as tests for intelligence or cognitive abilities - Dealt primarily with sensorimotor measurements - By 1910 he had enough data to correlate test scores with measures of student's academic performance.

Clinical Psychology Movement: Child Guidance Clinics

- Witmer: First established in 1909. If you can identify problems kids are having at an early age and treat them at an early age then they will not carry those problems into adulthood, you can help them become fully function members of the society. Approach: - Team approach, he had psychologists, psychiatrists, physicians, and social workers. - The social workers helped the kids within the family where they are getting taken care of - If there are vision or hearing issues, or etc. then physicians help the children with that. - If there are emotional issues, that's where psychologists and psychiatrists come in.

Clinical Psychology Movement: Two key books that were published

1. A mind that found itself: by Clifford Whittingham Beers, 1908. We have to treat people with middle disabilities humanely. 2. Psychotherapy: By Hugo Munsterberg, 1909. Talks about different treatment methods for people with psychological disorders.

What is the importance of Galton's Anthropometric laboratory (1884)?

1. Anthropometry: measurement of human capabilities/man. 2. Knew that in order to draw reliable conclusions, you need large sample sizes. 3. He created the lab to do so with the sample sizes. .4. Now called psychometrics (still used today). 5. How does he get the people? Puts out an ad for people to come in and get measured. In return they get to keep their results: lots of people are interested in this. 6. 9,000 individuals came in and got tested.

What is the nature of James' disagreement with Wundt?

1. Disagreed with the artificiality and narrowness of Wundt's system. 2. Said conscious experiences are simply what they are and not groups of collections of elements. 3. Said simple sensations do not exist in conscious experiences but due to a process of inference or abstraction. Food Taster Example: Fusion of flavor, taste the whole --> Most of us cannot detect individual flavors in food and see what's missing. Psychologist fallacy: to think that everyone else can break dow into "ingredients" or be a food taster.

SHORT ANSWER: How did Darwin influence Psychology?

1. Focus on animals: Titchener and Wundt both ignored research on children and animals. He opens up a new field of comparative psychology. Descartes said human and animal minds were not even close to each other- Darwin disagreed. 2. Focus on function rather than structure: Instead of just looking at the structure of the mind, looks at how it works. Elements in this case, as not useful. 3. Use of methods and data from many fields: Open up methodology even more- Structuralists were narrow. Says we can use methods and data from other fields to study not only humans, but animals. Begins to separate us more from physiology. 4. Study of individual differences: introduces diversity to the diversity vs. universality argument. He wanted to describe and measure these differences. Differences are important.

James Rowland Angell's 3 major themes of the functionalist movement.

1. Mental operations: Focus on mental operations NOT on elements. Any structures or functions that exist today, exist because they serve some adaptive advantage to an organism, help the organism survive. 2. Fundamental utilities of consciousness: Consciousness exists today so therefore it must serve some purpose for human beings. How useful is consciousness. The job of the psychologist is to figure out exactly how that function occurs. 3. Psychophysical relations: Psychology should be the study of psychophysical relations. He says we need to study the total relationships of organisms and environment.

How did the biblical account of creation fall?

1. There are far too many species, which contradicts the idea of Noah's Arc. 2. There's a great deal of similarity between animal and human behavior which means that humans aren't as unique in creation as the Bible says (not much different from animals). 3. Species go extinct, but new species that emerge later can have characteristics from species that are extinct. EXTINCT simply means destroyed and so nothing should be left.

Clinical Psychology Movement: Growth of Clinal Psychology from 1918 to after WWII

1918: No graduate programs in it. 1940: Some, but minor part of psychology. 1941 (WWII): Army established training programs for hundreds of clinical psychologists so they could treat the emotional disturbances of military personnel. 1/3 of all grad students in clinical psych

Who is James?

A precursor of the functionalist movement but DID NOT found it. Pioneer of the scientific psychology in the US. Leading American psychologist. Influential because: Was clean in his writing. Opposed Wundt's goal to break consciousness down into parts. Offered an alternative way of looking at the mind and consistent with functionalism.

Describe the state of applied psychology in the US

APA: - changed membership requirements in 1919 such that members had to have published experimental research - Eliminated the possibility of membership for many applied psychologists and most female psychologists. Success? - The demand for solutions to real-world problems drew more psychologists from academia to applied areas - However, the worldwide economic depression in the 1930s had many blaming applied psychology for not living up to its promises.

The work of Terman: Mental testing

Adopted the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ). Ratio of mental age and chronological age.

SHORT ANSWER: What are the contributions of functionalism to the new psychology?

Animal behavior became a vital area of study for psychology. The application of psychology to real world problems Supplemented introspection with other methods such as mental tests, physiological research, questionnaires, and objective descriptions of behavior.

What is the legacy of functionalism?

Applied psychology: mental testing, clinical psychology, industrial/organizational psychology

How was Social Darwinism compatible with the Zeitgeist in the U.S. in the early 1900s?

At the time, Zeitgeist is individualism in the U.S. Into ideas like survival of the fittest, struggle for existence, natural selection (Darwinian ideas) Looking for ideas that are practical, useful and functional--> Leads into functionalism later.

James's work on habits

Automatic, no conscious thought process or attention

MC QUESTION: The influences of WWII

Before: 70% of all doctorates in experimental psych 75% worked in academia After: 1984: only 8% 1996: now only about 3% Currently: 65% of all psychologists work in applied areas APA and APS American Psychology Society (APS) is more science, it is exactly what APA was but APS became more applied and focused on science.

Evolution before Darwin: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

Behavioral theory of evolution. Any changes in bodily form are due to organisms adapting to their environment AND those changes are passed on to later generations.

Identify psychology's methods according to James

Chose introspection as a basic method. Why? Although he rejects Titchener and Wundt, said it's fine because consciousness is a personal and immediate experience. Results could be verified by appropriate checks and by comparing the findings from several observers. Just introspection though? 1. Can also use experimentation (for memory research, psychophysics research and space perception) 2. Also use comparative method- Use special populations, investigate people and it can help you uncover meaningful variation in mental life (individual differences).

Industrial-Organizational Psychology: The Hawthorne Studies

Conducted by the Western Electric Company as its Hawthorne plant in Illinois: - They had no control group - Ran a second study, experimental group, and productivity went up - Third study, had control group again, productivity went up again - Found that, productivity goes up, does not matter what they do. - The problem was because the workers already knew what was going on, the employees wanted to impress their effects - The Hawthorne effect is when people know they are being tested their behavior is changed. Focused on human relations, motivation and morale.

Who is the founder of functionalism?

Determining a founder is difficult. No one had the ambition to found a new ism. They protested Wundt's psychology and Titchener's structuralism. Several ideologies existed though they all shared an interest in the applications of psychology.

Describe the work of Henry Hollerith during the 1890 Census.

Developed a new way to process information. The 1890 U.S. Census: uses a series of punch cards and run them through a machine to process more information than ever before at a quicker pace. Cost effective and efficient.

World War I: Louis Thurstone

Developed the Primary Mental Abilities test battery (a group of intelligence tests) Actually assessing different types of intelligence.

World War I: Florence Goodenough

Draw-a-man test: nonverbal intelligence test for kids.

George Romanes: Introspection by analogy

EX: If you want to know why you dog runs to the door when he hears it ring, ask yourself why you would do that. Reason why you did it is probably the same reason why they did.

What type of movement is Functionalism?

Evolutionary movement, a new way of looking at consciousness, applied not pure, not set out to destroy structuralism. Has no founder.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology: The work of Walter Dill Scott

Firsts: - Person to apply psychology to personnel selection, management, and advertising - To hold the title of professor of applied psychology - Founder of the first psychological consulting company - First psychologist to receive the Distinguished Service Medal from the US Army. Focused on selecting the best employees for jobs Developed psychological tests to measure intelligence and other abilities: See how people would use their intelligence: Defined intelligence as judgment, how quick you can make judgements, how accurate your judgements are. Law of suggestibility: - Want to focus on a course of action, or behavior, focus on sense of mentality, emotion and sympathy - Says woman are more suggestible - Talks about direct demands, in marketing direct demands "buy this", "shop here" - Return coupons, they draw you in

Describe the work of G. Stanley Hall

Firsts: American Ph.D. Established the first psych lab in the US. First American journal of psych. First President of Clark Univ. First APA President One of the first applied psychologists Made use of questionnaires: Developed 194 total. Theme of his research: Evolutionary theory. Recapitulation Theory: When you want to look at the development of a persons, it mirrors the development of mankind/humanity. We all start at infancy (primitive state), then adults (more civilized): same as caveman times vs. now.

What work did George Romanes do?

Formalized the study of animal intelligence and published "Animal Intelligence" in 1882. 1. Mental ladder. 2. Used anecdotal method 3. And used introspection by analogy

George Romanes: Anecdotal Method

Forms of observation, informal. Causal reports on animal behavior from untrained observers. EX: Me talking about my cat.

Describe the work of Robert Woodworth

Functionalism had server forms unlike structuralism. The key figure at Columbia University was Robert Sessions Woodworth. Also noteworthy from Columbia Uni. was James Cattlell and Thorndlike. Woodworth said the subject matter for psychologists was both consciousness and behavior. Tools used by him? 1. Introspection 2. Need to study external stimuli and overt behavior but what's going on inside the person is also important. 3. Uses experimentation and observation. Dynamic psychology: interested in why people do what they do. Understanding why people do what they do and what causes their behavior and what their motivations are. Leads into motivation research.

World War I: Charles Spearman

G factor: - What he calls general intelligence - Factor analysis: uses it to analyze all of the existing tests out there. - He says that these tests are generally all the same, if you do really well on one of the tests, you should do well on the other tests and vice versa. - Intelligence is an actual cognitive ability that can be measured and you can assign a numerical value to it.

What is the importance of Henry Hollerith's work?

Gets people thinking that maybe you can mimic human cognitive functioning in machines. Formed his own business called the Tabulating Machine Company: sold in 1911 and reformed as the Computing-Tabulating Recording Company: Today known as IBM.

What is the definition of the word association test pioneered by Galton? Why reinvented it?

Give someone a word and they have to think of the first thing that comes to mind. Do it a second time and see if they come up with the same word (replication). Later modified and updated by Karl Jung in 1904.

Evolution before Darwin: Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)

God created the universe and then he stepped back and doesn't get involved. Any new species or changes to existing species are due to natural laws and organisms adapting to their environment, not God.

What is the importance of Darwin to the new psychology?

He proposed the idea of evolution. This shifted the focus of psychology from the parts of consciousness to its function.

What is the importance of Juan Huarte's work during the 16th century?

He published "The Examination of Talented Individuals." Proposed a wide range of individual different way before Darwin ever did but remember, the times make the person (naturalistic). He says that we need to look at each child's strengths and weaknesses and tailor their education plan to them: meaning every child's plan would look different in school.

Evolution before Darwin: Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

He was a Geologist. Applies theory of evolution to geology: If you look at the Earth and how it is right now, it's there because it's going through a series of changes/development over time.

Who developed the idea of Social Darwinism?

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

What was Galton's work in the area of statistics?

Impressed with Adolph Quetelet's work with the normal distribution and its application to biological and social data (human variability). Galton assumed similar findings to mental measurements (exams follow normal distribution). Based on correlation.

The work of Goodard: Mental testing

Introduced the word moron, from the greek meaning slow.

What is the subject matter of psychology according to Functionalism?

It's concerned with how the mind works, how it helps the organism adapt to its environment, and how psychologists can apply their research findings to everyday problems.

James's work on emotion

James'Lange theory of emotion says stimulus, reaction/response, then emotion. EX: If a deer runs in front of your car you react first. If you see a cop, you slow down and then worry about if you were sleeping. Every emotion has a distinct, physiological profile. If you ask someone to describe what they're experiencing physiologically, you should be able to determine the emotion. EX that contradicts: physical traits of love (butterflies, etc) do not always apply years later --> Don't get butterflies after 10 years of marriage but you're still in love.

What did Galton's work in the area of religion look like?

Looks at the power of prayer and says that prayer is not useful or helpful. Religion does not affect lifespan. Doesn't help people relate to one another better and doesn't help people cope any better.

George Romanes: Mental Ladder

Lower rungs of ladder are species with lower levels of mental functioning. Goes up the ladder and increased intelligence. Like a hierarchy of mental functioning.

James's work on the self (3 types)

Material self: Anything that makes you uniquely you. Includes body, style of dress, family, home, personality. Social self: The recognition you get from others. Spiritual self: Your inner subjective well-being.

James: The stream of consciousness

Mental life is a unity: a continuous flow. (HINT: streams flow). Attempts to divide it into temporally distinct periods distorts it (makes it artificial and abstract). We can never experience the same thought or sensation more than once because there are intervening experiences that occur. EX: coming home to dishes after work vs. before work. Intervening experiences aka had a bad day at work. Stream of consciousness is continuous but selective: Can't focus your attention on everything, choose what to pay attention to based on its relevance.

What was Galton's work on mental tests?

Mental tests: Term coined by Cattell but Galton originated the idea. Tests of motor skills and sensory capabilities. Earliest intelligence tests. Good motor skills + sensory capabilities= more intelligent (NOT TRUE). Key measurement tools: whistle, photometer, calibrated pendulum, series of weights, a bar with a variable distance scale, sets of bottles.

What role do the mind and experience play in synthetic philosophy?

Mind: The state the mind is in right now got there because it's gone through stages of development as it has adapted to the environment: Shows the adaptive nature of the nervous system. Experience: Experiences become more complex/complicated across time. EX: Experiences you had as a kid vs. experiences adults have.

Describe the work of James Rowland Angell

Molded the functionalist movement into a working school of thought centered at the University of Chicago.

What work did C. Lloyd Morgan do?

Proposed the law of parsimony: Don't use a complicated explanation for something if a simple explanation suffices. Gave the methods of comparative psychology a more scientific basis. **** Conducts the first large scale experimental studies using animals. Believed that more animal behavior resulted from learning or association based on sensory experiences (John Locke- Empiricism). Also influences behaviorism.

What was Galton's work on hereditary?

Published "Hereditary Genius" in which he said that genius occurs in families far too often to be considered solely nurture. Coined the term eugenics in 1883: AKA SELECTIVE BREEDING. You can apply selective breeding (eugenics) to humans and animals. If applying to humans, give them a test to see if they have these qualities then encourage them to marry others with the same qualities and reproduce. This is nature orients, not nurture. Based on genetics, not environment.

What is synthetic philosophy?

Published his ideas in 10 volumes from 1860 to 1897. 2 volumes become the Principles of Psychology used at the first psych course taught at Harvard. The belief that knowledge and experience can be explained in terms of evolutionary principles.

World War I: The psychological testing movement

Racial differences: Testing of the immigrant population showed that most were feebleminded with a mental age less than 12 Racial differences received more support in 1921 as the results from WWI were made public. Critics of racial differences; Horace Mann Bond. He says black can be just as intelligent as whites are if they are educated.

What is Social Darwinism?

Said that the development of all aspects of the universe is evolutionary. Includes human character and social institutions (ex: government entities, businesses, community groups, etc.) It's better for the society if it goes away. EX: Block buster tried to adapt to change by moving online, but it didn't work and they eventually faded out. Human perfection is inevitable as long as the natural order of things is not interfered with.

Describe the work of John Dewey

Spent 10 years at the University of Chicago. Attacked the reflex arc: There's a stimulus in your environment and you respond to it, it just happens. Dewey says there is something wrong with this idea, he says it is NOT an arc but it is a circle, there is a role of perception that plays in. EX: A child sees a flame, thinks it's cool and touches the flame. But he says there's more to it. After the child is burnt by the flame, he updates his perception of the flame and thinks the flame is not cool anymore and he will now stay away from it. (THIS IS WHY IT IS A CIRCLE AND NOT AN ARC). Concluded that the proper subject matter for psychology was the study of the total organism as it functions in its environment.

What are the criticisms of functionalism to the new psychology?

The Structuralists were unconcerned with applying psychology to real world problems. While the functionalists had no stake in maintaining psychology as a pure science. Never apologized for practical interests.

World War I and Group testing/racial differences that arose from this.

The US army needed to asses intelligence so they could assign soldiers to tasks suitable to their abilities. Could not use the Stanford-Binet intelligence test: 1. It can only be administered to one person at a time 2. It is a very lengthy test 3. Has to be delivered or given by a trained professional.

What did Galton's work with mental images look like?

The study of mental images was the first extensive use of the psychological questionnaire. Mental images: same as imageless thoughts. He asked 100 people to describe their breakfast table that morning. Some gave rich descriptions, some couldn't remember at all which leads to individual differences. Results followed the normal distribution. Siblings more likely to give the same response than complete strangers.

James's work on Pragmatism

The validity of an idea is based on its practical consequences. Goes with the Zeitgeist of the times.

How did historical events in the U.S. lead to development of functionalism?

There was a move toward practical psychology at the same time functionalism was rising a separate school of thought. By 1900, 25% of research articles published in American journals dealt with applied psychology and less than 3% dealt with introspection. 1800: No labs, no psych journals, Americans had to go to Germany to study psych 1900: 41 labs, 3 journals, Now 40 doctoral programs at U.S. universities, by 1904 over 100 Ph. Ds awarded in psych. Economic influences: There were many new Ph.Ds but not enough academic positions. Hence, they had to look beyond academia to the private sector. Education was the answer. 1870 only 7 million enrolled in public education. 1950 there was a dramatic increase of 20 million enrolled.

Describe Darwin's view of human and animal minds.

There was no sharp distinction between human and animal minds. Lower animals experience pleasure and plain, happiness and sadness, have vivid dreams, imagination.

World War I: Robert Yerkes

They ask Yerkes, he says he will find a test. He finds a test which is created by Arthur Odis: 1. Intelligence test and it is in a multiple choice format. 2. Test over one million men entering world war. 3. They found that US population is illiterate than they every imagined. - Army Alpha: for literate - Army Beta: for illiterate What they find is form those million people, 25% are illiterate and they need the Army Beta State assessing personality traits, school, employers become obsessed with testing people this way.

What is the goal of psychology according to James?

To study living people as they adapt to their environment. Through conscious we take necessary steps to sure our survival. Without consciousness, human evolution is not possible.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Developments during WWI and WWII

WWI: Scott and his rating scale for selecting Army captains based on his tests for rating business leaders. WWII: More testing, screening, and classifying receipts. But weapons were more sophisticated and necessitated changes to selection

Industrial-Organizational Psychology: The work of Hugo Mustenberg

Work in Forensic Psychology: - Did work on eyewitness testimony - Examined psychological factors that affect a trial's outcome such as the power of suggestion, false confessions and the use of physiological instruments. Work in Psychotherapy: - Believed mental illness was really just a behavioral maladjustment problem. - Treated patients in the lab not in the clinic. Work in Industrial Psychology: - Said the best way to increase job efficiency, productivity, and satisfaction was to select workers for positions that matched their mental and emotional abilities

Describe the work of Henry A. Carr

Worked with John B. Watson as a RA. Under Carr, functionalism reached its peak and final form at the University of Chicago. What includes mental activities: Learning, memory, imagination, judgement, will and etc. The function of mental activities is to acquire, fixate, retain, organize, and evaluate conscious experience. The form these mental activities take is what he calls adaptive or adjustive behavior.

Can machines evolve?

Yes, and Samuel Butler said it had already occurred (ex: Xbox, Nintendo, Wii, VHS, records) Either has to change the machine and evolve, or it disappears.