Psych Ch. 5

pineal gland

an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS

opiates

are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. There are now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs (correctly called opioids) that have very potent painkilling effects, and they are often abused.

Lucid dreams

are dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dream's content.

Stimulants

are drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine.

Theta waves

are even lower frequency (4-7 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves than alpha waves. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep.

Biological rhythms

are internal rhythms of biological activity

Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep

are often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because these stages are characterized by low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high amplitude delta waves

alpha waves

are relatively low frequency (8-13Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure). This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity.

narcolepsy

cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times

insomnia

consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time

euphoric high

feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking.

withdrawal

includes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances.

Physical dependence

involves changes in normal bodily functions—the user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use

circadian rhythm

is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environment's natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm.

Jet lag

is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia.

Evolutionary psychology

is a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection

depressant

is a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity.

sleep spindle

is a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory.

Sleep

is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness.

Hypnosis

is a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli.

Methadone

is a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs.

collective unconscious

is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone.

Stage 1 sleep

is a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature.

Methamphetamine

is a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors.

K-complex

is a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments.

Codeine

is an opioid with relatively low potency. It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in some other countries. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide

Wakefulness

is characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior.

Sleep apnea

is defined by episodes during which a sleeper's breathing stops. These episodes can last 10-20 seconds or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping .

caffeine

is generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death

The pons

is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

Tolerance

is linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous level—even to the point of overdose and death.

opioid

is one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system—the body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse.

Obstructive sleep apnea

occurs when an individual's airway becomes blocked during sleep, and air is prevented from entering the lungs.

REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)

occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Individuals who suffer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred

Sleep rebound

refers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep. Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well.

nicotine

replacement therapies in addition to various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use of tobacco products. In general, smoking cessation programs may be effective in the short term, but it is unclear whether these effects persist

Night terrors

result in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment. . Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. Night terrors apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors

stage 2 sleep

the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles.

Melatonin

One important regulator of sleep-wake cycles is the hormone ____. It's release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light.

Rotating shift work

Refers to a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. In such instances, the individual's schedule changes so frequently that it becomes difficult for a normal circadian rhythm to be maintained. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

The brain's clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as the ____. The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information to the _____ based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal clock to be synchronized with the outside world

Consciousness

describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Awareness of external stimuli includes seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend.

continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)

device includes a mask that fits over the sleeper's nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the person's airways, forcing them to remain open, as shown in Figure. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea

central sleep apnea

disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing cause periods of interrupted breathing

sleep debt

does not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. The consequences of sleep debt include decreased levels of alertness and mental efficiency. Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. As a result, many of us sleep less than 7-8 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt.

psychological dependence

has an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress.

restless leg syndrome

has uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes

sleepwalking or somnambulism

he sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals

Methadone clinics

help people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. Other drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine, have also been used to alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal.

hallucinogen

is one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure). In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time.

Parasomnias

is one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias

Meditation

is the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone.

Manifest content

is the actual content, or storyline, of a dream.

Homeostasis

is the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system.

Latent content

on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream.

Sleep regulation

refers to the brain's control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world.

Rapid eye movement (REM)

sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness.

non-REM (NREM)

sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. The first four stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fifth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep.

meta-analysis,

study that combines the results of several related studies.

delta wave

type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 and stage 4 sleep.

cataplexy

which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles