Psych Chapter 9

spreading activation model

A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences. For example, if you ask people to report the first words that come to mind when they see the word red, you will get many different answers.

declarative memory

A consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize, including semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information; also known as explicit memory.

information processing

A continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition.

forgetting

A decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory

schema

A set of expectations about objects and situations.

cue

A stimulus that aids retrieval.

flashbulb memory

An especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event.

nondeclarative memory

An unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memory that is difficult to verbalize, such as a memory for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming; also known as implicit memory.

Interference

Competition between newer and older information in memory.

Tip-of-theTongue Phenomenon

Ex. While trying to remember a word or name, you might retrieve the first letter of the item, but the complete item remains elusive.

decay

Fading away of memory over time. Occurs when our ability to retrieve information that we do not use fades over time.

motivated forgetting

Failure to retrieve negative memories

How does sleep impact memory formation?

It helps in consolidating existing memories with new information.

maintenance rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating the stimulus again and again in order to remember it. And elaborative rehearsal, which involves linking the new material to things you already know.

Nondeclarative memory is divided into....

Procedural Memory (the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things), Classical Conditioning, and Priming (the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory).

Reconstruction

Rebuilding a memory out of stored elements. Building of a memory out of the stored bits by blending retrieved information with new content present in working memory.

In the context of memory retrieval, which of the following is a difference between recognition and recall?

Recognition tasks provide more cues than recall tasks.

retroactive interference

Reduced memory for target information because of subsequent learning.

levels of processing theory

The depths (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that predict its ease of retrieval.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

The enhancement of communication between two neurons resulting from their synchronous activation

long-term memory

The final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories. We do not run out of room in long-term memory for new data, and information can last a lifetime.

sensory memory

The first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds large amounts of incoming data for brief amounts of time. Sensory input is translated or transduced into several types of codes or representations.

Retrieval

The recovery of stored information.

When Cody's teacher announced a series of six dates for tests, he started repeating them to himself so that he would not forget them before noting them down. As he started writing, a friend called his name and he looked up. When he tried to write the dates, he realized that he did not remember them. Which of the following statements best explains why Cody could not remember the dates?

The rehearsal was insufficient to convert the short-term memory to long-term memory.

short-term memory (STM)

The second stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time.

encoding

The transformation of information from one form to another.

encoding specificity

The transformation of information from one form to another. Each time you form a long-term memory, target information is encoded along with other important bits present at the same time. As a result, each memory is processed in a unique and specific way because this exact combination of bits is unlikely to occur again.

method of savings

This method compares the rate of learning material the first time to the rate of learning the same material a second time. It might take you 50 practice trials to learn the periodic table of elements for your first chemistry class.

Loci

This technique is particularly handy when you are trying to memorize a list of items in order, such as the planets in our solar system or the cranial nerves. The method takes advantage of the fact that we form excellent representations of visual images in memory. You begin by imagining a familiar place, perhaps your childhood home. As you imagine yourself walking through your home, you visualize each item in a particular location. If you wish to remember your grocery list (although writing the items down is probably easier), you might imagine a carton of eggs on the little table in your entry, a loaf of bread on the sofa, a box of cereal on the television, and so on. To recall your list, all you need to do is to take another imaginary walk through your house, recalling the items you placed as you go. If all goes well, you should remember all your items in the correct order.

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage. An extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information simultaneously

Alan Baddley's Model of Working Memory

an explanation of how our three short term sensory stores interact with the central executive which controls the flow of info to/from the sensory stores - working memory consists of phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer and central executive

Long-term memory can be divided into several categories...

beginning with a distinction between declarative (also known as explicit or conscious memories) and nondeclarative (also known as implicit or unconscious memories)

A representation of a memory refers to a mental model of a...

bit of information that exists even when the information is no longer available. Visual codes are used for the temporary storage of information about visual images

Forming new memories requires changes in the...

connections neurons make with one another at the synapse, or synaptic consolidation.

encoding memory

converting information into a useable form so it can be presented and stored in memory

massed practice

cramming

Before heading out, Natasha's mother gives her instructions to fold the laundry and set the table for dinner. However, Natasha is watching a movie on her laptop and does not hear what her mother says. When her mother returns, she becomes upset as Natasha has not done either of the chores. In the context of the processing of memory, the given scenario best exemplifies failure to:

encode memory

memory can be divided into 3 steps...

encoding, storage, and retrieval.

a sensory memory lasts for...

fractions of a second

Whenever Juan listens to a particular song, he becomes nervous and upset. However, he has no idea why he becomes upset. This is an example of a(n):

implicit memory

Retrieval systems help us find the....

information we need, whether we are searching online, looking for a book, or trying to remember something important. Organized information is always easier to find than disorganized information.

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Link new information to well-known information.

proactive interference

refers to reduced memory for target information as a result of earlier learning.

Information usually moves from short-term to long-term memory through:

rehearsal

acoustic codes

represent sounds and words

we search through short-term memory one item at a time, rather than...

retrieving its contents all at once.

Declarative memory is divided into....

semantic memory (memory for knowledge about the world) and episodic memory (the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place). Those get broken into Autobiographical memory (the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story).

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. According to this classic model of memory, information flows through a series of stages. If memory is not transferred to the next stage, it is permanently lost.

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Which of the following actions is most likely to produce the best long-term memory?

taking a test

Memory

the ability to retain knowledge

transitive memory

the combined memory of a group that is more efficient than the memory of the individual members

Chunking

the process of grouping similar or meaningful information together.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Connectionism views the mind as a network made up of simpler units or concepts. Connectionist models of memory suggest that....

thinking about one concept automatically leads to thinking about related concepts and their properties.

haptic codes

used to process touch and other body senses

Sensory memories are processed in short-term memory if:

we pay attention to them

Details that are consistent with our schemas are more likely to be retained, whereas inconsistent details are more likely to be left out. Details may be added in memory if they make a story more consistent and coherent. For example...

you are more likely to recall having seen books in a photograph of a professor's office than in a photograph of a farmer working in the fields. Even if no books appeared in the professor's office, you might recall seeing some, because most professors have offices filled with books.