PSYCH CHP 6

-Adolescents in Western cultures tend to be strongly peer-oriented and to value the opinion of their peers highly, - especially on day-to-day issues such as how they are dressed and what they say in social situation

Most studies on self-esteem in adolescence assume that high self-esteem is good and low self-esteem is a problem that needs to be fixed -

In Erikson's view, the psychosocial moratorium is not characteristic of all societies but only those with individualistic values, in which individual choice is supported

Most young people in Western societies go through the explorations of the psychosocial moratorium and then settle on more enduring choices in love, work, and ideology as they enter adulthood

According to Erikson, intimacy versus isolation is the central issue of young adulthood.

Research on the relation between identity and intimacy has often focused on gender differences. -Most studies until about a decade ago indicated that developmental processes of forming an identity and establishing intimacy took place simultaneously for females, whereas males tended to achieve identity before intimacy -the most recent studies have found no gender differences in identity and intimacy patterns.

Which of the following best reflects the research evidence that describes how and why self-esteem changes during adolescence and emerging adulthood?

Self-esteem is lower during adolescence compared to emerging adulthood because adolescents tend to be more peer-oriented and self-conscious about harsh peer evaluations than emerging adults.

Which of the following best summarizes the research findings from the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) studies on emotional volatility across adolescence?

The ESM results indicate adolescents reported experiencing more extremes of emotions, such as feeling embarrassed, compared to both preadolescents and adults, and that from fifth to eighth grade there was a 50% decline in the proportion of time youth reported feeling "very happy."

Which of the following best summarizes the research findings from the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) studies on adolescents' emotional states during times they are alone?

The ESM studies revealed adolescents spend about 25% of their time alone, and that although they report experiencing low moods during these hours, they use this time to engage in self-reflection and mood regeneration.

James Marcia and other psychologists extended Erikson's theory of identity development by creating and conducting research on a questionnaire called the Identity Status Interview that classifies adolescents into one of four different identity statues. Which of the following best explains how this questionnaire categorizes adolescents, and what the resulting four identity statuses are?

The Identity Status Interview has questions that tap into adolescents' level of engagement in identity exploration and commitment, and the resulting combinations of these processes are the four statuses of -identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.

In adolescence, the crisis is identity versus identity confusion.

The healthy path in adolescence involves establishing a clear and definite sense of who you are and how you fit into the world around you. -healthy path provides a stable foundation for the next stage of development,

we will look first at Erikson's theory of the adolescent identity crisis, then at the research that has been conducted to explore Erikson's theory.

These are all issues of identity. It is the adolescent's nascent capacity -adolescence and continuing through emerging adulthood, explorations are made into various aspects of identity, culminating in commitments that set the foundation for adult lift -

critiques for Erikson

Three of the most prominent critiques have been a ------critique of the identity status model, a gender critique, and a cultural critique. -

ESM study

Thus, if we compare the patterns of emotions reported by the different groups, we can get a good sense of whether adolescents report more extremes of emotions than preadolescents or adults. -

People who think highly of themselves, who possess a high level of self-esteem, threaten the harmony of the group because they may be inclined to pursue their personal interests regardless of the interests of the groups to which they belong.- traditional cultures

children and adolescents in these cultures are socialized to mute their self-esteem and to learn to consider the interests and needs of others to be at least as important as the interests and needs of themselves -"self" is thought of not so much as a separate, independent being, essentially apart from others, but as defined by relationships with others,

identity foreclosure

commitment, but no exploration. -This is often a result of their parents' strong influence

Research on the identity status model has found that the identity statuses are differentially associated with aspects of adolescent development. For instance, adolescents in the __________ status report lower levels of self-esteem and poorer relationship quality with parents compared to adolescents in the __________ status.

diffusion; achievement

In Marcia's system based on Erikson's identity development theory, the psychosocial moratorium entails ______ but not _________.

exploration; commitment

Marcia & Carpendale: Identity Status Interview turned into identity status model,

four identity statuses: diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, or achievement.

Identity issues exist early in life,

from the time children first realize they have an existence separate from others, and continue far beyond adolescence as adults continue to ask themselves questions about who they are and how they fit into the world around them.

Bicultural

identification with Ethnic Group - High Identification with Majority Culture - High -involves developing a dual identity, one based in the ethnic group of origin and one based in the majority culture. -moving back and forth between the ethnic culture and the majority culture, and alternating identities as appropriate. -most common status among Mexican Americans and Asian Americans, as well as among some European minority

-postmodern

identity changes across contexts, so that people may show a different identity to friends, family, coworkers, and others.

Each stage of life has a central crisis of this kind, according to Erikson (1950). In adolescence, the crisis is ____________________.

identity versus identity confusion

Identity moratorium

involves exploration but no commitment. -stage of actively trying out different personal, occupational, and ideological possibilities.

Self-esteem is a person's overall sense of worth and well-being

is a person's overall sense of worth and well-being -Self-image, self-concept, and self-perception are closely related terms, referring to the way people view and evaluate themselves.

Identity diffusion

is a status that combines no exploration with no commitment. -dolescent at this stage is not seriously attempting to sort through potential choices and make enduring commitments.

Barometric self-esteem

is the fluctuating sense of worth and well-being people have as they respond to different thoughts, experiences, and interactions in the course of a day. -high high and low lows

healthiest for adolescents to possess both an ideal self and a feared self.

nondelinquent adolescents tended to have this balance between an ideal self and a feared self -delinquent adolescents possessed a feared self but were less likely than other adolescents to have a clear conception of an ideal self to strive for -

Identity formation involves reflecting

on what your traits, abilities, and interests are, and then sifting through the range of life choices available in your culture, trying out various possibilities, and ultimately making commitments.

self-concept domain of romantic appeal

"Some teenagers feel that they are fun and interesting on a date, but other teenagers wonder about how fun and interesting they are on a date."

Adolescents report feeling "self-conscious" and "embarrassed" two to three times more often than their parents

-5th graders to adolescent 8th graders, Larson and Richards (1994) describe the emotional "fall from grace" that occurs during that time, as the proportion of time experienced as "very happy" declines by 50%, -

Diversity in self-esteem also exists among different American ethnic groups

-African Americans tend to have higher self-esteem than other ethnic groups: although their self-esteem suffers if they experience racial discrimination -White adolescents tend to have higher self-esteem than Latinos, Asian Americans, or Native Americans -Asian Americans are often lowest in studies that compare the self-esteem -These. problems are rooted in cultural differences, with self-esteem promoted most in African American culture and least in Asian American cultures

Self-Esteem in Emerging Adulthood

-Although self-esteem tends to decline from preadolescence to adolescence, for most people it rises during emerging adulthood -emerging adulthood most people have passed through the awkward changes of puberty and may be more comfortable with how they look. -emerging adulthood usually means having more control over the social contexts of everyday life,

What leads some adolescents to have high self-esteem and others to have low self-esteem?

-Feeling accepted and approved by others—especially parents and peers -adolescents often spend less time with their parents and have more conflict with them than before adolescence, adolescents' relationships with parents remain crucial to their perceptions of themselves. -parents most imporant -If parents provide love and encouragement, adolescent self-esteem is enhanced; if parents are denigrating or indifferent, adolescents respond with lower self-esteem -as well coaches, adults, teachers -

young man aurther:

-First, Erikson viewed identity formation as centering on an identity crisis. -Second, Erikson's study of Luther shows his sensitivity to the cultural and historical context of identity development. -Third, in describing Luther's development Erikson shows that identity formation reaches a critical point during the identity crisis, but it begins before that time and continues well after.

However, critics have argued that Gilligan exaggerates the differences between boys and girls in adolescence

-For example, it is true that girls' self-esteem declines in early adolescence, but boys' self-esteem declines as well, -She studies girls and then makes assumptions about how they differ from the patterns that might be found among boys. -Also, she typically presents the results of her research only in the form of excerpts from the interviews she and her colleagues have conducted, and commentaries on those excerpts -didnt study boys

Other studies confirm that adolescents' self-esteem varies depending on who they are with -

-Furthermore, adolescents vary in how much their barometric self-esteem fluctuates, with some relatively stable across time and contexts and some highly variable -more enjoyable and secure their social relationships, the more stable their self-esteem is. -

: Do Adolescent Girls Lose Their "Voice"?

-Gillian -Gilligan and her colleagues have argued that there are gender differences in the self in adolescence -They claim that early adolescence is a crucial turning point in self-development, in which boys learn to assert their opinions, whereas girls lose their "voice" and become reticent and insecure -She sees girls as more sensitive to the nuances of human relationships from an early age, more observant of the subtleties of social interactions, and more interested in cultivating emotional intimacy in their relationships with others. -Early adolescence is crucial -, the muting of girls' voices is reflected in an escalation in such problems as depression and eating disorders when girls reach adolescence. -

emerging adulthood is a period between the companionship of living with family and the companionship of marriage or some other long-term partnership.

-In recent years, texting, emailing, and using social-networking sites such as Facebook have become common ways for emerging adults to maintain social connections and support -In the college environment, emerging adults rarely experience social loneliness but emotional loneliness is common

However, most scholars see these emotional changes as due to cognitive and environmental factors more than to biological changes

-Larson and Richards (1994), adolescents' newly developed capacities for abstract reasoning "allow them to see beneath the surface of situations and envision hidden and more long-lasting threats to their well-being" -adolescents experience potentially stressful events but how they experience and interpret them that underlies their emotional volatility

Susan Harter (1989, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2015). -Her Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents distinguishes the following eight domains of adolescent

-Scholastic competence -Social acceptance -Athletic competence -Physical appearance -Job competence -Romantic appeal -Behavioral conduct -Close friendship. -Harter's research indicates that adolescents do not need to have a positive self-image in all domains to have high global self-esteem. -

Larson and Richard: provide a revealing example of one adolescent girl's experience of being alone.

-She was alone about one-fourth of the times she was beeped, the typical rate. -but wrote "I like to be by myself. I don't have to be worried or aggravated by my parents. I have noticed that when I'm alone I feel better sometimes

Robert Weiss (1973) made an important and influential distinction between two types of loneliness:

-Social loneliness- occurs when people feel that they lack a sufficient number of social contacts and relationships. -Social loneliness:: occurs when people feel that they lack a sufficient number of social contacts and relationships. -emotional loneliness::: occurs when people feel that the relationships they have lack sufficient closeness and intimacy. =social loneliness reflects a deficit in the quantity of social contacts and relationships, -whereas emotional loneliness reflects a deficit in the emotional quality of a person's relationships.

Susan Harter and her colleagues examined Gilligan's idea of losing one's voice in adolescence, but they included boys as well as girls

-The results indicated some support for Gilligan's theory, in that "feminine" girls reported lower levels of "voice" than boys did -androgynous girls—those who reported having both masculine and feminine traits—were equal to boys in "voice." -more "feminine" girls were lower than boys in "voice," not girls in general.

Brain development may contribute to adolescents' emotionality

-When adolescents processed the emotional information from the photos, brain activity was especially high in the amygdala, a primitive part of the brain involved in emotions, -and relatively low in the frontal lobes, the part of the brain involved in higher functions such as reasoning and planning -The reverse was true for adults. -

School success has also been found to be related to self-esteem in adolescence, especially for Asian American adolescents

-back in the daypredominant belief in American education was that self-esteem is more of a cause of school success than a consequence. -now most recent studies have shown that school success and self-esteem are mutually reinforcing: Doing well in school enhances self-esteem in children and adolescents, which in turn gives them confidence that promotes further school success -

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) is one of the most influential scholars in the history of the study of adolescent development, including on identity issues.

-each period of life is characterized by a distinctive developmental issue or "crisis, -infancy as a period of trust versus mistrust. Infant development follows a healthy path, -in Erikson's theory, when the infant establishes a secure sense of trust with at least one person who can be counted on to provide protection and loving care.

globalization::: more young people around the world now develop a bicultural identity, with one part of their identity rooted in their local culture while another part stems from an awareness of their relation to the global culture.

-even the better-educated young people, who have become full-fledged members of the global economy, still mostly prefer to have an arranged marriage -

The Identity Status Model: A Postmodern Perspective

-identity status model has come under increasing criticism from scholars who view it as a narrow and outdated model of identity formation -identity is not nearly as stable and unitary as the identity status model portrays it, -most common form of identity today is the postmodern identity, which is composed of diverse elements that do not always form a unified, consistent self

Culture and Identity

-most of the research inspired by Erikson's theory has taken place among middle-class adolescents in Western countries. -assertions of the prominence of identity issues in adolescence may apply more to modern Western adolescents than to adolescents in other cultures. -the experience of adolescence is often much different in traditional cultures -every culture, adolescent girls have been designated by their cultures for the roles of wife and mother,

Phinney (2006, 2008) has proposed that emerging adulthood may be an especially important time for developing ethnic identity because emerging adults often enter new contexts

-promoting ethnic identity may lead adolescents to adopt a separation identity -separation response is, at least in part, a result of the discrimination and prejudice that minorities often face in American society and that young people become more fully aware of as they reach adolescence. -

Studies have found that adolescents who spend an unusually high proportion of their time alone tend to have higher rates of school problems, depression, and other psychological difficulties

-same studies have found that adolescents who are rarely alone also have higher rates of school problems and depression. -Just as being alone does not necessarily mean being lonely, a person can be lonely even when among others.

One of the reasons that adolescents are able to engage in the frequent self-reflection that allows them to consider their self-conceptions, self-esteem, and emotional states is that they are often by themselves.

-spend 1/4 time alone, 25% -Is this a lonely time for them? Yes, but it also has benefits. During their time alone their moods tend to be low -However, after a period by themselves their mood tends to rise. -When their time alone is done, they tend to feel restored -

How does emotionality change during the course of adolescence? Larson and Richards assessed their original ESM sample of 5th to 8th graders four years later, in 9th to 12th grade

-they found that the decline in positive emotional states continued through 9th and 10th grades and then leveled out. -

Cultures that promote an independent, individualistic self also promote and encourage reflection about the self.

-to consider who you are as an independent person, and to think highly of yourself

Adolescents who have inflated self-esteem—that is, they rate themselves more favorably than parents, teachers, and peers rate them —tend to have greater conduct problems in the classroom compared with their peers

. Low self-esteem in the family and school domains and high self-esteem in the peer domain were associated with multiple risk behaviors in adolescents of both sexes.

The Emotional Self

. One of the most ancient and enduring observations of adolescence is that it is a time of heightened emotions -French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau made a similar observation: "As the roaring of the waves precedes the tempest, so the murmur of rising passions announces the tumultuous change" of puberty and adolescence

Which of the following best summarizes Carol Gilligan's perspective that girls "lose their voice" during adolescence, along with the major criticisms of this perspective?

According to Gilligan's research, girls "lose their voice" in the course of conforming to cultural pressures for the passive female role during adolescence; however, critics argue that this perspective is biased because of major flaws in Gilligan's research methods, including rarely assessing boys and only conducting qualitative research.

Which of the following best explains how Jean Phinney's model of ethnic identity development classifies adolescents into one of four different identity statues, and what are the resulting four identity statuses?

According to Phinney, identity development among ethnic minority adolescents involves a process in which youth must negotiate the values of their ethnic group with the values of the majority culture; the resulting combinations of this process are the four ethnic identity statuses of - assimilation, marginality, separation, and biculturalism.

traditional cultural practices and beliefs, and may lead less to a bicultural identity than to a hybrid identity::::: integrating local culture with elements of the global culture

Hermans and Kempen (1998) observed, -"Different and contrasting cultures can be part of a repertoire of collective voices playing their part in a multivoiced self

he unhealthy alternative is identity confusion

, which is a failure to form a stable and secure identity.

studies generally find that self-esteem declines in early adolescence, then rises through late adolescence and emerging adulthood

-"imaginary audience": imagine that others are especially conscious of how they look and what they say and how they act, -combination of greater peer orientation, greater self-consciousness about evaluations by peers, and peers' potentially harsh evaluations contributes to declines in self-esteem in early adolescence.

More Abstract

--the self becomes this kind of concept, as they reflect on their personal characteristics in new ways. -Susan Harter: less with increasing age children describe themselves less in concrete terms and more in terms of their traits -self-conceptions become still more trait-focused, and the traits become more abstract ex. abstractions. "Sensitive." "Outgoing." "Cheerful." "Anxious." -selves exist only as abstractions, as ideas in the adolescent's mind. -imagine an ideal self, you can also become aware of the discrepancy between your actual self and your ideal self, -between what you are and what you wish you were -between the actual and ideal self is related to depressed mood in both adolescents and emerging adults

Gender and Identity

-. Erikson has been the subject of theoretical critiques for being biased toward male development -"anatomy is destiny," meaning that there are sex differences in psychological development, including identity development, that are based on biological sex differences -women's biology, represented by the "inner space" of the uterus and the capacity for bearing children, makes them oriented toward relationships with others -whereas men's biology, represented by the penis, makes them oriented toward independent,

African American girls evaluate their physical appearance quite differently than White girls do

-40% of the African American girls were satisfied with their bodies, compared with just 20% of the White girls -t Black and Asian young women evaluate themselves according to skin color

Which of the following is TRUE regarding cultural differences with regard to self-esteem?

Americans value high self-esteem to a greater extent than people in other countries.

. Morris Rosenberg, - the scholar who developed the widely used Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, distinguished between baseline self-esteem and barometric self-esteem

Baseline self-esteem is a person's stable, enduring sense of worth and well-being. -People with high baseline self-esteem might have an occasional bad day in which they feel incompetent or self-critical, but they still have high baseline self-esteem because most days they evaluate themselves positively.

Phinney has concluded that adolescents who are members of minority groups have four different ways of responding to their awareness of their ethnicity

Bicultural, Assimilation, seperated, marginal

Which of the following scenarios best reflects the research evidence that explains differences in self-esteem among adolescents?

Celine has a warm and supportive relationship with her parents, and in turn she has a high level of self-esteem.

Is adolescent emotionality especially an American phenomenon, or does it take place in other cultures as well?

ESM method was used with adolescents and their parents in India (Verma & Larson, 1999). -The results indicated that, in India as in the United States, adolescents reported more extremes of emotion than their parents did.

The Experience Sampling Method (ESM) studies, in which adolescents wear beeper watches and record their moods and activities when beeped at random times,

ESM studies find that adults and preadolescents experience changes in their moods as well, but not with the same frequency or intensity as adolescents. Moodiness may be especially high in early adolescence.

Erikson argued that it is important to establish a clear identity in adolescence as a basis for initial commitments in adult life and as a foundation for later stages of development.

Erikson's view, identity formation is founded partly in the identifications the adolescent has accumulated in childhood

Separated

Identification with Ethnic Group - High Identification with Majority Culture - Low -involves associating only with members of one's own ethnic group and rejecting the ways of the majority culture

Assimilated

Identification with Ethnic Group - Low Identification with Majority Culture - High -involves leaving behind the ways of one's ethnic group and adopting the values and way of life of the majority culture -

Marginal

Identification with Ethnic Group - Low Identification with Majority Culture - Low -involves rejecting one's culture of origin but also feeling rejected by the majority culture.

The unhealthy alternative is identity confusion, which is a failure to form a stable and secure identity

Identity formation ---involves reflecting on what your traits, abilities, and interests are, and then sifting through the range of life choices available in your culture, trying out various possibilities, and ultimately making commitments.

The other key process that contributes to identity formation, according to Erikson, is exploring various possible life options

psychosocial moratorium= a period when adult responsibilities are postponed as young people try on various possible selves. -falling in love is part of identity formation -trying new careers, jobs -college majors -trying out religon

Which of the following scenarios best reflects the postmodern identity?

When Ellen is around her close friends, she is more outgoing and when she is around her coworkers, she is more reserved; furthermore, since Ellen has transitioned to college from high school, she has found herself being more open-minded and is choosing to remain this way.

Children identify with their parents and other loved ones as they grow up—that is, children love and admire them and want to be like them.

When adolescence comes, adolescents reflect on their identifications, rejecting some and embracing others.

False self

a self that they present to others while realizing that it does not represent what they are actually thinking and feeling -adolescents are most likely to put on their false selves with dating partners, and least likely with their close friends, with parents in between -

identity achievement.

both exploration and commitment i -young people who have made definite personal, occupational, and ideological choices. -

Self-Esteem and Physical Appearance

physical appearance is most strongly related to global self-esteem, followed by social acceptance from peers -is gender difference largely explains the gender difference in self-esteem that occurs at adolescence in most Western cultures -

Research by Susan Harter and other scientists has found the domain of ________ has the most influence on global self-esteem during adolescence, and that this link is strongest among ________.

physical appearance; girls

More Complex

self-understanding is that it becomes more complex. -adolescents' self-conceptions become more complex, especially from early adolescence to middle adolescence -adolescents described themselves in contradictory ways (e.g., shy and fun-loving) increased sharply from 7th to 9th grade and then declined slightly in 11th grade. -self-conceptions is that adolescents become aware of times when they are exhibiting a false self, -

For other adolescents, identity confusion may be the result of an inability to sort through all the choices available to them and decide among them.

to the extreme, negative identity= "an identity perversely based on all those identifications and roles which, at critical stages of development, had been presented to them as most undesirable or dangerous" -instead deliberately embrace what their society considers unacceptable, strange, contemptible, and offensive. -

Barometric

type of self esteem with high highs and low lows- usally after chatting with friends there are highs but bad test grade brings it to low