Psych Quiz 1 (ch 1-3)
Development is multicontextual
. Development occurs in many contexts. Baltes (1987) identified three specific contextual influences.
Erikson proposed that each period of life has a unique challenge or crisis that the person who reaches it must face, referred to as psychosocial crises.
Erikson proposed that each period of life has a unique challenge or crisis that the person who reaches it must face, referred to as psychosocial crises.
Erikson's 8 theories - If a person does not resolve a stage successfully, it may hinder their ability to deal with later stages. For example, the person who does not develop a sense of trust (Erikson's first stage) may find it challenging as an adult to form a positive intimate relationship (Erikson's sixth stage). Or an individual who does not develop a clear sense of purpose and identity (Erikson's fifth stage) may become self-absorbed and stagnate rather than work toward the betterment of others (Erikson's seventh stage). Figure 1.9 Erik Erikson Figure 1.8 Sigmund Freud from Wikimedia 19 However, most individuals are able to successfully complete the eight stages of his theory
Erikson's 8 theories - If a person does not resolve a stage successfully, it may hinder their ability to deal with later stages. For example, the person who does not develop a sense of trust (Erikson's first stage) may find it challenging as an adult to form a positive intimate relationship (Erikson's sixth stage). Or an individual who does not develop a clear sense of purpose and identity (Erikson's fifth stage) may become self-absorbed and stagnate rather than work toward the betterment of others (Erikson's seventh stage). Figure 1.9 Erik Erikson Figure 1.8 Sigmund Freud from Wikimedia 19 However, most individuals are able to successfully complete the eight stages of his theory
Sigmund Freud
Freud was a very influential figure in the area of development. Freud emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior. In our natural state, we are biological beings and are driven primarily by instincts. During childhood, however, we begin to become social beings as we learn how to manage our instincts and transform them into socially acceptable behaviors. His assumptions were that personality formed during the first few years of life. The ways in which parents or other caregivers interacted with children were assumed to have a long-lasting impact on children's emotional states. However, Freud's theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically (Crews, 1998). Freud suggested that much of what determines our actions were unknown to us, and as scientists we cannot measure these unconscious concepts. A second criticism is that Freud's case studies were not validated and cannot be used as evidence for his theories. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, came about as challenges to Freud's views.
Arnold Gesell
Gesell spent 50 years at the Yale Clinic of Child Development, and with his colleagues he studied the neuromotor development of children. Gesell believed that the child's development was activated by genes and he called this process maturation (Crain, 2005). Further, he believed that development unfolded in fixed sequences, and he opposed efforts to teach children ahead of schedule as he believed they will engage in behaviors when their nervous systems had sufficiently matured.
Jean Piaget
He was inspired to explore children's ability to think and reason by watching his own children's development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children's intelligence differs from that of adults (Piaget, 1929). He became interested in this area when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children's intellectual skills change over time and that maturation, rather than training, brings about that change. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently. Piaget theorized that children progressed through four stages of cognitive development MATURATION
Lev Vygotsky
His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. Vygotsky developed theories on teaching that have been adopted by educators today.
Correlation does not demonstrate causation!
Just because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur
Development is lifelong
Lifespan theorists believe that development is life-long, and change is apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates human development
Lifespan vs. Life expectancy
Lifespan, or longevity, refers to the length of time a species can exist under the most optimal conditions. Life expectancy is the predicted number of years a person born in a particular time period can reasonably expect to live
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Like Locke, Rousseau also believed that children were not just little adults. However, he did not believe they were blank slates, but instead developed according to a natural plan which unfolded in different stages (Crain, 2005). He did not believe in teaching them the correct way to think, but believed children should be allowed to think by themselves according to their own ways and an inner, biological timetable. Father of developmental psychology - Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Locke advocated thinking of a child's mind as a tabula rasa or blank slate, and whatever comes into the child's mind comes from the environment. Locke emphasized that the environment is especially powerful in the child's early life because he considered the mind the most pliable then. Locke indicated that the environment exerts its effects through associations between thoughts and feelings, behavioral repetition, imitation, and rewards and punishments
Locke advocated thinking of a child's mind as a tabula rasa or blank slate, and whatever comes into the child's mind comes from the environment. Locke emphasized that the environment is especially powerful in the child's early life because he considered the mind the most pliable then. Locke indicated that the environment exerts its effects through associations between thoughts and feelings, behavioral repetition, imitation, and rewards and punishments
John Locke
Locke, a British philosopher, refuted the idea of innate knowledge and instead proposed that children are largely shaped by their social environments, especially their education as adults teach them important knowledge. He believed that through education a child learns socialization, or what is needed to be an appropriate member of society.
Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and more recently, aging and the entire life span. Previously, the message was once you are 25, your development is essentially completed.
Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and more recently, aging and the entire life span. Previously, the message was once you are 25, your development is essentially completed.
Our academic knowledge of the lifespan has changed, and although there is still less research on adulthood than on childhood, adulthood is gaining increasing attention. This is particularly true now that the large cohort known as the "baby boomers" are beginning to enter late adulthood.
Our academic knowledge of the lifespan has changed, and although there is still less research on adulthood than on childhood, adulthood is gaining increasing attention. This is particularly true now that the large cohort known as the "baby boomers" are beginning to enter late adulthood.
Psychological age
Our psychologically adaptive capacity compared to others of our chronological age is our
____________ identified several underlying principles of the lifespan perspective
Paul Baltes
Development is characterized by plasticity.
Plasticity is all about our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. For instance, plasticity is illustrated in the brain's ability to learn from experience and how it can recover from injury.
The most famous behaviorist was Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904- 1990), who expanded the principles of behaviorism and also brought them to the attention of the public at large. Skinner used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of rewards or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals. In addition, he used the general principles of behaviorism to develop theories about how best to teach children and how to create societies that were peaceful and productive (Skinner, 1957, 1968, 1972).
The most famous behaviorist was Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904- 1990), who expanded the principles of behaviorism and also brought them to the attention of the public at large. Skinner used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of rewards or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals. In addition, he used the general principles of behaviorism to develop theories about how best to teach children and how to create societies that were peaceful and productive (Skinner, 1957, 1968, 1972).
There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called reciprocal determinism.
There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called reciprocal determinism.
Development is multidimensional
We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and psychosocial.
Development is multidirectional
We may show gains in some areas of development, while showing losses in other areas. Every change, whether it is finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both growth and loss.
Developmental Psychology
also known as Human Development or Lifespan Development, is the scientific study of ways in which people change, as well as stay the same, from conception to death.
Urie Bronfenbrenner
developed the Ecological Systems Theory, which provides a framework for understanding and studying the many influences on human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner recognized that human interaction is influenced by Table 1.4 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Approximate age range Characteristics Stage attainments Sensorimotor Birth to about 2 years Children experience the world through their fundamental senses of seeing, hearing, touching, and tasting. Object permanence Preoperational 2 to 7 years Children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. They also start to see the world from other people's perspectives. Theory of mind; rapid increase in language ability Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Children become able to think logically. They can increasingly perform operations on objects that are real. Conservation Formal operational 11 years to adulthood Adolescents can think systematically, can reason about abstract concepts, and can understand ethics and scientific reasoning. Abstract logic 22 larger social forces and that an understanding of these forces is essential for understanding an individual.
cognitive domain of development
encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problemsolving, memory, and language.
This belief that our own culture is superior is called _________
ethnocentrism
cognitive theories
focus on how our mental processes or cognitions change over time. Three important theories are Jean Piaget's, Lev Vygotsky's, and Information-processing.
psychosocial domain
focuses on changes in emotion, selfperception and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.
Information Processing
how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use, and remember information. This approach assumes that humans gradually improve in their processing skills; that is, cognitive development is continuous rather than stage-like.
biological age
how quickly the body is aging
physical domain of development
includes changes in height and weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness
Macrosystem
includes the cultural elements, such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society's responses to the global community.
Microsystem
includes the individual's setting and those who have direct, significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings. The input of those is modified by the cognitive and biological state of the individual as well. These influence the person's actions, which in turn influence systems operating on him or her.
Exosystem
includes the larger contexts of community. A community's values, history, and economy can impact the organizational structures it houses. Mesosystems both influence and are influenced by the exosystem.
Mesosystem
includes the larger organizational structures, such as school, the family, or religion. These institutions impact the microsystems just described. The philosophy of the school system, daily routine, assessment methods, and other characteristics can affect the child's self-image, growth, sense of accomplishment, and schedule thereby impacting the child, physically, cognitively, and emotionally.
cohort
is a group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a particular society. These people travel through life often experiencing similar circumstances.
age-grade
is a specific age group, such as toddler, adolescent, or senior. Humans in a specific age-grade share particular experiences and developmental changes.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income, and occupation.
Cultural relativity
is an appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture.
Learning Theory: Also known as Behaviorism
is based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself.
Social age
is based on the social norms of our culture and the expectations our culture has for people of our age group.
Correlational research
is research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge.
Experimental research
is research in which a researcher manipulates one or more variables to see their effects.
Descriptive research
is research that describes what is occurring at a particular point in time.
Chronosystem
is the historical context in which these experiences occur. This relates to the different generational time periods previously discussed, such as the baby boomers and millennials.
Culture
is the totality of our shared language, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. It includes ideas about what is right and wrong, what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak, what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations. Culture teaches us how to live in a society and allows us to advance because each new generation can benefit from the solutions found and passed down from previous generations. Culture is learned from parents, schools, houses of worship, media, friends and others throughout a lifetime.
Social Learning Theory
learning by watching others, was developed by Albert Bandura His theory calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning, as suggested by Skinner. Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation. Especially when children do not know what else to do, they learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others.
Development is . . .
lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, characterized by plasticity, multidisciplinary, contextual
chronological age
number of years since your birth
Development is multidisciplinary.
requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base of many academic disciplines.
scientific method
set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research.
Albert Bandura
suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called reciprocal determinism. An example of this might be the interplay between parents and children. Parents not only influence their child's environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations, both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment.
Preformationism
the belief that a tiny, fully formed human is implanted in the sperm or egg at conception and then grows in size until birth, was the predominant early theory. Children were believed to possess all their sensory capabilities, emotions, and mental aptitude at birth, and as they developed these abilities unfolded on a predetermined schedule (Thomas, 1979). The environment was thought to play no role in determining development.
research design
the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data.