Psych Quiz 4

Achievement Motivation

Achievement Motivation Achievement motivation refers to the tendency to display initiative and persistence when faced with a challenging task. Features of Achievement Tasks: Standard of Excellence Individual Responsible for Outcome (effort, ability) Challenge or Uncertainty

Estrogen vs Testosterone

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Motivation Definition

A motivation is "... a need or desire that serves to energize behavior and direct it towards a goal." (p. 357). Motives: Initiate Direct Persistence

Abraham Maslow'w Hierarchy

Basic physiological needs must be taken care of before higher level development can occur. Implications of Maslow's theory is that people hold different kinds of goals .Goals have varying difficulty levels which determines the necessary motivational intensity & persistence Goals link cognitions (thoughts) to behaviors

Emotion Expression across Cultures

Biocultural Model Display Rules: We learn rules about when we should and shouldn't display certain emotions. Ekman Miller & Sperry Decoding Rules: You don't show that you know what someone else is feeling. Ie: when someone is acting like they aren't hurt, you don't call them out. Lying Behavior "Training" children to lie Observation: see their parents lie Explicit message: We tell kids to pretend to like someone's bad cooking. Individual differences in ability: some children are better at lying than others.

Catastrophizing

Bryant & Gutherie (2005) Hypothesis: Pre-trauma catastrophic thinking would predict posttraumatic stress symptoms. Procedure: Trainee firefighters ( N = 82) were assessed during training (Time 1) and 6 months after commencing active duty (Time 2). Monitored participants' trauma exposure on a weekly-basis. At T2 firefighters were asked to nominate worst event experienced and rate severity (0 = not at all traumatic, 100 = very traumatic). Measures PTSD Scale Traumatic Events Questionnaire Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (negative cognitions about self, negative cognitions about the world, self-blame) In reference to negative event Results: Predictor Variable: Posttraumatic Cognitions Criterion Variable: PTSD The results showed that a major predictor of posttraumatic stress symptoms was the extent to which firefighters engaged in catastrophic thinking prior to stress exposure. Maladaptive appraisals about themselves Important Caveat: Limited Generalizability (external validity)

Clinical Intervention

Clinical Approaches  VARIETY of treatments: Psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud) Psycho-pharmacological (psychiatrists) Biological / Neurological: drugs, surgery, ECT Behavioral (Pavlov / Skinner) Cognitive (Aaron Beck) Humanistic (Carl Rogers) Interpersonal / Social: group therapy Systems: couples and family therapy * Eclectic approach Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) for extreme depression when patients catatonic 75-100 volts for fraction of a second Induces a "seizure" like convulsion (about 1 min.) Several times for 2-3 weeks Sedative & muscle relaxant Effective in over 80% of cases (Persad, 1990) On the whole, interventions are effective. Debates about which approach works best Some clinicians adopt an "eclectic" style. Generally, a combination of medication and therapy is best because disorders have many dimensions

Personality Disorders

Cluster A: Odd or eccentric behavior, Paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal Cluster B: Dramatic or erratic behavior, Borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial Cluster C: Anxious or inhibited behavior. Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive Symptoms of Psychopathy: Failure to obey social conventions, especially laws. Deceitful behavior, like lying or conning. Impulsivity and failure to plan ahead. Irritability and physical aggressiveness. Disregard for the safety of oneself or others. Failure to sustain work or honor financial obligations. Lack of remorse for wrongdoing. Three or more are diagnostic of psychopathy. Psychopaths understand social norms and when they are violating them, but don't see/ feel that as immoral.

Cognitive Effects of Labels

Cognitive Effects of Labels Gelman & Heyman (1999) told 5-yr-olds about characters with distinctive behaviors. Some characters were described with labels and some with a verbal predicate. "Rose is a carrot-eater" vs. "Rose eats a lot of carrots" Cognitive Effects of Labels Following the stories, participants were asked about the stability of the behavior. Examples: Did Rose eat a lot of carrots when she was 4? Will Rose eat a lot of carrots when she's grown up? Would Rose eat carrots even if her family didn't? Would Rose eat carrots if her family told her to stop? Cognitive Effects of Labels % of children who claimed the trait was stable: Dimension Label Phrase In the past 71% 62% In the future 82% 63% No family support 70% 55% Family opposition 79% 71% Implication: Placing a label on a behavior implies that it is stable and enduring (even to children). Clinical Implications Rosenhan (1973) studied the treatment of 8 pseudopatients in psychiatric hospitals. Their symptom: Hearing voices say "empty," "hollow," and "thud." Upon admittance to the hospital, the pseudopatients adopted normal behavior. How long did it take the staff to detect the ruse? They never did; all eight left the hospital ~3 weeks later w/ a diagnosis of "schizophrenia in remission." During their stay, their behaviors (e.g., journal writing) were interpreted through the lens of schizophrenia.

Individual Responses to Failure

Cognitive Explanation: Lack Ability Lack Effort 1st 2 are internal attributions Bad Luck Difficult Task Last 2 are external attribution Behavioral Response: Persist Don't Persist Emotional Response: Optimistic Distressed

Moral-Conventional Transgressions

Conventional transgressions: Jaywalking, driving without a license, not paying parking tickets, not voting in elections Moral transgressions: Robbing a bank, breaking into other people's houses, intentionally embarrassing people Moral transgressions differ from conventional ones in at least four respects: (1) They are more serious. (2) They are deserving of more punishment. (3) They are wrong in different contexts/places. (4) They are wrong even in the absence of a rule/law. Differentiating M & C transgressions along these dimensions has become a standard test of morality.

Self-Awareness

Critical Developmental Milestone Self-awareness is necessary (18-24 months) mirror recognition procedure Mirror-directed behavior Self-directed behavior Research with Non-Human Animals Gallup: Do chimpanzees recognize themselves in the mirror? Said No. Anderson :Do rhesus monkeys recognize themselves in the mirror? Said No. Novack: Habituated monkeys to mirror. Said Yes. Are at first frightened by their reflection, but when you leave them alone with the mirror for long enough they come to recognize themselves. Alternative Methodology Assessing Self-Recognition: Jens Asendorf (1996) and his colleagues studied social contingency awareness ability to recognize that are being imitated ability to imitate the activity of a model.Some children who fail the rouge test pass the social contingency awareness task Rouge test does in fact lead to some false negatives you identify children as not having self-awareness when in fact they do.Some children do have self awareness even after you've concluded they don't.

Hopelessness Theory of Depression

Depressed patients tend attribute what's going on in their lives to negative things. This causes them to develop learned helplessness, which leads to maladaptive behaviors and depression. CBT targets those negative attributions.

Is the Recognition of Emotion Universal?

Early Researchers' Position Early emotions researchers proposed that the recognition of emotion was universal. They proposed that the ability to recognize facial expressions was evolutionarily and biologically determined rather than learned. Universal Affect Program or Neurocultural Theory Modern Day Researchers' Position Focus on how differences across cultures may affect the universal processes involved in expressing and understanding emotions They have reinterpreted the findings from classic research studies. Rather than focusing on cross-cultural similarities in the data (as the early researchers did) they focused on cultural differences. They propose that there are subtle differences in how members of a given cultural group display specific emotions. As the authors explain, "... each cultural group has a specific affect program that incorporates some adjustments to the universal program. Acquired through social learning, these adjustments create subtle differences in the appearance of emotional expression across cultures." (p. 162). They propose that there are subtle differences in how members of a given cultural group display specific emotions. As the authors explain, "... each cultural group has a specific affect program that incorporates some adjustments to the universal program. Acquired through social learning, these adjustments create subtle differences in the appearance of emotional expression across cultures." (p. 162).

Emotional Competence

Eight Skills and Abilities: Self-Awareness Emotion Regulation Other Awareness Self-Presentation Cue Detection Emotion literacy Understanding Relationships Emotional Self-Efficacy How can we promote emotional competence? -Early intervention with mothers Wedland-Carro et al. (1999) School-based interventions PATHS (Provide Alternative Thinking Strategies) program

Identity Development

Elaborated Model of Identity Development James Marcia expanded on Erikson's ideas. Focused on identity exploration in 3 areas: Occupation, Ideology (values and beliefs), and Interpersonal relationships. Broader Ranges of Alternatives: Identity Diffusion (neither searching or committed). Someone who is Identity confused, they are neither exploring nor committed. Identity Foreclosure (commits without searching/without crisis) Moratorium (searching/exploring possible alternatives) Identity Achievement (after searching makes a commitment)

Stacker's Two-Factor Theory

Emotions involve cognitive interpretation of physiological arousal Our body is aroused by a situation, and our brain looks at the situation and environment, our brain labels the emotion and the appropriate response, then sends a signal to the thalamus causing us to respond. Criticism: Schacter-Singer generally explains situations, but not when emotions felt "immediately" IF dual neurological routes, then Cannon-Bard may also be correct IF appraisal can occur very quickly & below consciousness, S-S might explain all emotions

Environmental Factors and Theories of Intelligence

Family:Dweck School -Fivush: Girls/boys get very different messages: Girls get messages about their abilities vs. boys get it about their effort. Culture: Stigler and Stevenson: In Asian cultures they focus more on effort while we focus on ability.

Individual Differences in Stress Reactions

Has to do with cognitive appraisals. Factors Affecting Appraisal of Stressors: Emotionality: -Early warning signals -Interrupt ongoing behavior -Interrupt cognitive tasks Unpredictability -Reaction governed by two personal traits: Tolerance for ambiguity and Information-seeking skills. -Evaluation of Meaning Individual Personality Style Type A/B Behavior has an effect on we respond to stress. Affirmation of Personal Values (Creswell et al, 2005) Can buffer neuroendicrine and psychological stress responses Creswell et al., 2005 Looked at whether an intervention involving reflection on personal values could buffer physiological and psychological stress responses in a laboratory stress challenge. 85 undergraduate students Manipulated Affirmation of Values Value-Affirmation Group (Value 1) Control Group (Value 5) Social Stress Task (5 minute speech, counted aloud backward from 2,083 by 13s for 5 minutes under harassing conditions) Measured Cortisol levels at 20, 30, and 45 minutes Showed affirming one's values helps decrease stress.

Sex vs Gender

How do biologists define sex? By gamete production (egg = female, sperm = male). How do biologists define gender? By appearance, behavior, and life history. Are "sex" and "gender" interchangeable? No; gender expression varies widely across species. Myth 1: Sex is Fixed at Birth A male clown fish will turn into a female if no female is present in the anemone where he lives. Myth 2: Sex is Either-Or Most flowering plants and most marine organisms are hermaphroditic. Myth 3: Males are Bigger than Females Male anglerfish live their entire life as a permanent appendage of the much larger female. Myth 4: Only Females Give Birth Female seahorses deposit eggs in the male's pouch, where they are incubated until birth. Myth 5: Only Males Have a Penis Female spotted hyenas have a penis-like structure perceptually identical to that of males. Myth 6: Only Males are Promiscuous During mating season, female Belding's squirrels accrue as many mates as males do. Myth 7: Only Two Genders Occur White-throated sparrows have 4 distinct genders: white- vs. tan-striped males, white- vs. tan-striped females. Myth 8: Males are XY, Females are XX In birds, males have XX chromosomes and females have XY chromosomes.

Therapeutic Approaches

Humanistic - unconditional positive regard Cognitive - targets negative attributional style.Attempts to address underlying cause and behavioral symptoms... but assumes cause originates from within the person Short term and goal directed. Cognitive psychology accounts for self-awareness & goal-directed actions therapies reveal irrational aspects of negative thoughts to change person's beliefs Psychiatry & Pharmacology: Most drug treatments aimed at altering the flow of specific types of neurotransmitters Example) Anti-anxiety (anxiolytics) Anti-psychotics (neuroleptics) Anti-depressants (MAOIs, SSRIs, & ß-blockers)

Treatment of Phobias

Implosion Therapy: Advantages Less anticipatory anxiety Useful for avoiding build up of existing obsession Greater potential to create insight quicker and longer lasting extinction Drawbacks: Many unwilling to try it, Could be overwhelming and IF it backfires, the phobia is strengthened to an extreme degree Systematic Desensitization: graduated exposure-slowly expose the person to the situation. IE: "Second Life" allows woman to learn how to interact with the world.

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is built into our system "Instincts": "drives"  "needs" (humans) All extrinsic motivation must be learned! We learn that a behavior is instrumental for obtaining some other reward (e.g., studying)

James-Lange Theory

James-Lange Theory Emotions stem from bodily feedback or physiological reactions Central importance is given to visceral gut reactions (ANS) Eliciting Stimulus —> Bodily Response —> Perceived Arousal —> Emotional Feeling "I am sad because I cry" "I am afraid because I tremble" Criticisms Bodily responses are not distinct enough Changes in heart rate, perspiration and body temperature are too slow

Motivation Across Cultures

Jeffrey Arnett Individualistic Cultures (Broad Socialization) Independence, self-expression Collectivistic Cultures (Narrow Socialization) Obedience, conformity

Attachment and Self Recognition

Lewis, Brooks-Gunn & Jaskir (1985): Can we predict when they will self-recognize based on their attachment? Participants 37 healthy infants seen at 12, 18, & 24 months Procedure  Strange Situation Procedure at 12 months (Secure and Insecure)  Mirror recognition Procedure at 18 and 24 months Results: Insecurely attached infants exhibit earlier self-recognition than securely-attached infants

Misattribution of Arousal

Misattribution of Arousal Studies Can we trick people into attributing their arousal to the wrong cause? Many studies in the 1970s and '80s We'll review just a classic example... but many studies suggest the answer is "YES" More support for S-S We can trick people to attributing their arousal to the wrong cause. Dutton & Aron (1974)'s famous studyon the Capilano Bridges "Attractive" female experimenter waited until men crossed a scary bridge (450-ft. long, 5 ft. wide, 230 ft. high) OR a low bridge (10 ft. high). Experimenter approached strangers Asked them to fill out a questionnaire that measured sexual arousal Invited strangers to call her to find out more about the experiment More men from the scary bridge called her than from the lower bridge. Misattribute fear to passion. Agression: Participants exercised, then watched erotic film Increased arousal from exercising spilled-over and was misattributed to the film... Increased aggression due to erotic feelings (Zillman et al.)

Neural Basis of Psychopathy and Treatments

Neural Correlates of Psychopathy Psychopathic criminals exhibit reduced activity in the limbic system (top) & frontal cortex (bottom). Limbic system: emotion Frontal cortex: inhibition Might fMRI be used to diagnose psychopathy? Treatments for Psychopathy: There are none. But not all psychopaths are violent criminals; most learn to manipulate people within the confines of the law. Psychopaths gravitate towards professions with clear norms and self-policing practices (Hare, 1999). Top choices: Law enforcement, military, politics, business

Licht and Dweck

Participants: 5th graders Procedure: Classified Children as Performance-Oriented or Mastery-Oriented Taught Psychology (Operant Conditioning) Half of the children were taught some confusing material Independent Variable: Material Taught confusing or not confusing Subject Variable: General Disposition of child performance-oriented, mastery-oriented Dependent Variable: Amount Learned. Was the amount learned affected by the type of material taught and their personality. They found an interaction between type of child and material taught in predicting task mastery. Fixed mindset did worse and handled failure worse than the growth mindset.

Limitations of Pharmacological, Psychodynamic, Humanistic, ad Group Therapies

Pharmacological - easy "fix" that ignores underlying problem, often a guessing game. Alleviates symptoms, but ignores the underlying cause(s) of symptoms. Often, a guessing game based on trial-and-error OCD & social phobia improved by anti-depressants! Compliance can be a major issue.Clients want to avoid unpleasant side-effects Psychodynamic - too unfocused, process never ends.Refers to 'talk therapy'- want to talk about your childhood/early traumas etc. Humanistic - takes too long, only works with insightful clients Group - too much time wasted on others, and some symptoms can get worse in group therapy

Cognitive Appraisals

Primary Appraisals ("Am I in trouble or not?") Secondary Appraisals (What can I do about it?") Two Kinds of Appraisals of Stressors: Threat Challenge

Cannon-Bard Theory

Proposes that an emotional experience produces two concurrent reactions: Arousal Experience of emotion When you see a bear the cortex interprets the information as a bear and you experience the emotion of fear while at the same time the thalamus sends messages to the organs and legs to depart Criticisms: Individuals with spinal cord injuries Can't perceive ANS arousal Do not report strong emotions ("heat"of emotion) Supports James Langue.

Disordered Behavior

Psychologists label behavior disordered when it is: Deviant (from what others do) Distressful (to oneself) Dysfunctional (for daily life)

Emotion Expression Gender Differences

Research by Halberstadt et al. (1992) Videotaped 68 2nd and 4th grade children Discussed activities: Positive, negative, neutral Asked to perform 3 display strategies: Inhibition, simulation, masking Judges rated children's deceptiveness Results: Normative developmental changes Individual differences in ability (Girls > Boys) Review of Psychological Terms Independent or Manipulated Variables Type of activity Facial management task Participant Variables: Age Gender Dependent or Outcome Variable Children's deceptiveness Two Possible Explanations Differences in skill level Differences in motivation Davis (1995) Game task: Told kids: if I can't tell which gift you like better, you get both. If I can tell, you lose. Girls may have gotten more social practice hiding their emotions.

Emotions and Facial Expressions

Research with babies Johnson et al., (1982) Asked mothers to indicate the emotions that infants displayed. Most mothers said their child was experiencing positive emotions. Are they biased? Trained Judges to identify baby's expression. Have judges code for expressions, and finds there are some universal facial expressions.

LeDoux Dual Neurological Pathways

Sensory information reaches thalamus: Reflexive: Sent directly to amygdala if life-threatening (typically anger or fear) Deliberate: Sent to the sensory cortex and then to the prefrontal cortex to be interpreted if non-threatening

Non Basic Emotions

Shame: Is felt when the individual fails to live up to an ego-ideal. Embarrassment: Is closely related to shame - the emotional experience is less intense. Guilt: Is felt when we believe we have acted in a morally deficient way. We have or feel we have committed a moral transgression. We feel guilt even more strongly when we have wronged or harmed an innocent other. Humiliation: Is felt when the individual feels that their actions are being "put down" by others. Pride: Is felt when an act, thought or feeling is well done

Emotional Display Strategies

Simulation - You act like you feel an emotion when no such emotion is present. 1) Smiling without experiencing happiness. 2) Expressing guilt when you have no remorse. 3) Showing surprise when you fully expected an event to occur. Inhibition (Neutralization) - You give the impression of having no feelings when you truly experience emotion. It is the reverse of simulation. 1) Keeping a straight face when something strikes one as funny. 2) Hiding attraction to a third party when one's spouse is present. 3) Suppressing anger at one's boss. Intensification (Maximization) - You give the appearance of having stronger feelings than you actually have. 1) Showing more grief at a funeral than you actually feel. 2) Laughing heartily at your boss joke when you barely think it is funny. 3) Communicating love to a distant relative for whom you only feel slight affection. Deintensification (Minimization) - You give the appearance of experiencing an emotion with less intensity than one actually is feeling. 1) Children raising their voices slightly rather than yelling when angry. 2) Teens trying to act cool by smiling instead of laughing at a very humorous joke. Masking - You communicate an emotion that is entirely different than the one you are experiencing. This type of display rules occurs later in a person's developmental cycle because it is easier to moderate an emotion (ex. Acting less angry than you actually feel) than it is to express an emotion entirely different than you feel 1) Looking brave when you are afraid.

Stress

Stress refers to the process that occurs as individuals adjust to or deal with environmental circumstances that disrupt or threaten to disrupt their physical or physiological functioning (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Transaction between individuals and their environment Stressors are the environmental circumstances

Sex and Gender: Sunfish, Bonobos

Sunfish Mating Behavior: Once a year, large males stake out neighboring territories. Females arrive in a school, enter the territories one by one, and mate with the large males. Small males remain at the edge, fertilizing eggs not fertilized by the large males. What do the medium males do? Marriage Brokers Medium males school with the females, and large males court medium males as if they were females. Are the large males confused? No, they secure the medium male's help in attracting females, as he can "vouch" for the large male's character. The payment: Equal access to all female mates. Bonobos: Sexually Permissive Bonobos Bonobos engage in many sexual activities with many partners. Activities: Genital sex, oral sex, tongue kissing, masturbation Partners: Everyone in the 60-member group except close kin Frequency: Numerous brief episodes per day Functions of Bonobo Sex (1) Sex facilitates sharing. (2) Sex facilitates reconciliation after a dispute. (3) Sex facilitates the integration of new group members. (4) Sex can be used to build coalitions. (5) Sex can be used to secure resources. (6) Sex leads to reproduction (of course). Do humans use sex for similar functions? The biological relationship between gender and sex is more complex than a one-to-one mapping. The biological relationship between gender and sexual orientation is more complex than a one-to-one mapping. In social animals, sexual activity has both reproductive and social functions.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Symptoms of OCD Preoccupied with details, rules, lists, or schedules. Unable to complete tasks due to perfectionism. Devoted to work to the exclusion of leisure. Inflexible about matters of morality, ethics, or values. Unable to discard worn-out or worthless objects. Reluctant to delegate tasks or work with others. Miserly toward both self and others. Rigid and stubborn. Four or more are diagnostic of OCD. Explaining OCD One explanation is that it arises from an impaired ability to shift attention or inhibit prepotent responses. Consistent with this explanation, OCD patients perform poorly on tasks like this: Neural Correlates of OCD fMRI studies w/ non-clinical populations have linked response inhibition to the anterior cingulate cortex. OCD patients exhibit hyperactivity in this region when engaged in response-inhibition tasks. Treatment for OCD Most common is a cognitive behavioral therapy known as Exposure and Ritual Prevention (E&RP). Exposure: Simulation or direct contact with situations that trigger obsessions, usually of escalating intensity. Ritual Prevention: Avoiding compulsions (triggered by exposure) and working through the resultant anxiety.

Importance/Danger of Labeling Disorders

The Power of Labels: Labeling disorders allows mental health professionals to: (1) Predict symptoms (2) Explain symptoms (3) Communicate w/ others (4) Identify underlying causes (5) Identify potential treatments The Danger of Labels: Labels can be stigmatizing. Labels can be false/artificial. Labels can act as self-fulfilling prophecies. Labels can outlast the behavior they were intended to describe.

Identity and Intimacy

Two Key Perspectives Identity development as a pre-requisite (Erikson) Co-occurring developments (Gilligan) Alternative Perspective Carol Gilligan Identity and intimacy are fused Development is seen as "... a process of renegotiating relationships, redefining oneself in relation to individuals and social groups (family, ethnic group, race, gender) of which one is a part." (Garrod et al., 1995, p. 11). Intimacy precedes identity Gender Differences: Illustrative Study by Kahn, Zimmerman, Csikszentmihalyi and Getzels (1985). Longitudinal study with 166 College students that Examined the relation between identity and stable intimate relationships via survey Findings: Found that relation between identity and intimacy varied for men and women Gender moderated the relation between identity and intimacy Identity achievement was not an important predictor of intimacy for women Identity achievement was an important predictor of intimacy for men

Extra Credit: Names of Cats

Tyler, Izzy, Jordan

Types of Stressors and Reactions

Types of Stressors Core Question: What kinds of environmental events are stressful? What events provoke stress responses? Three main types of stressors: Catastrophes Major Life Events Daily Hassles Stress Reactions: 1) Physiological Responses Two Systems Activated SAM (Sympathetic-Adrenalmedullary) Heart rate, blood pressure HPA (Hypothelamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical) Release of glutocorticoids; cortisol 2)Your first reaction to stress recognizes there's a danger and prepares to deal with the threat. At this stage everything is working as it should - you have a stressful event, your body alarms you with a sudden jolt of hormonal changes, and you are now immediately equipped with enough energy to handle it. Activation of the HPA axis -- the nervous system and the adrenal glands The main stress hormones are rereleased to provide energy cortisol, adrenaline, and noradrenaline 3)Resistance Stage: source of stress being possibly resolved Homeostasis begins restoring balance and a period of recovery for repair and renewal takes place. Stress hormone levels may return to normal but you may have reduced defenses and adaptive energy left. BUT... If a stressful condition persists, your body adapts by a continued effort in resistance and remains in a state of arousal. Problems occur when this process is repeated too often with little or no recovery. This can move the individual to the final stage 4) Exhaustion Stage: At this phase, the stress has continued for some time. Your body's ability to resist is lost because its adaptation energy supply is gone. Often referred to as overload, burnout, adrenal fatigue, maladaptation or dysfunction - Here is where stress levels go up and stay up! The adaptation process is over! this stage of the general adaptation syndrome is the most hazardous to your health. 5) Stress Reactions Behavioral Fight or flight Tend and befriend (Taylor et al., 2000) oxytocin Tend-and-Befriend: Tending: Involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring & promote safety and reduce distress (cf. attachment) Befriending: Involves creating and maintaining social networks 6)Emotional Anxiety, irritability, anger, embarrassment, hostility, depression, helplessness 7) Cognitive Catastrophizing

Universal Affect Program and Dialect theory

Universal Affect Program Conscious Processes (referred to as "management techniques") Display Rules (i.e., cultural rules about when to display an emotion) Decoding Rules (i.e., cultural rules about whether or not to acknowledge that one has understood) Dialect Theory Conscious Processes (referred to as "management techniques") Display Rules (i.e., cultural rules about when to display an emotion) Decoding Rules (i.e., cultural rules about whether or not to acknowledge that one has understood) The Two Models Universal Affect Program Conscious Processes (referred to as "management techniques") Display Rules (i.e., cultural rules about when to display an emotion) Decoding Rules (i.e., cultural rules about whether or not to acknowledge that one has understood) Dialect Theory Conscious Processes (referred to as "management techniques") Display Rules (i.e., cultural rules about when to display an emotion) Decoding Rules (i.e., cultural rules about whether or not to acknowledge that one has understood) AND Non-Conscious Processes Subtle differences in how the emotion is expressed facially (learned) Scholarly Evidence meta-analysis of 97 studies Findings There is a clear in-group advantage: you have a better job of recognizing expressions of people within your own group. The in-group advantage is lower when the groups are nearer geographically or have greater cross-cultural contact: you will be good at recognizing other groups you are geographically close to. Supportive of Dialect theory

Performance vs Mastery Oriented

Whether you label the outcome a failure! Do you look at it as a learning experience or do you think you are worthless or a failure. Performance-Oriented Failure. Focus on ability or lack of ability. Avoid showing your weakness. Don't take challenges. Mastery-Oriented or Learning-Oriented Challenge Looking to master the material Effort. Example: hitting the ball and striking out

Why do most species reproduce through sex?

Why Sex? In some gecko species, all the members are female. They reproduce asexually, as do many grasshoppers, mosquitoes, bees, moths, turkeys, chickens. If reproduction can occur without sex, why do most species (~98%) reproduce sexually? Dangers from Within Sexual reproduction is the most efficient way to combat pathogens and parasites. As pathogens/parasites evolve new ways to break into a host's cells, hosts evolve new ways of keeping them out. Genetic recombination changes the cellular "locks" that pathogens/parasites try to pick.

Emotion

physiological reaction, outward expression, and conscious awareness of the experience Importance of Emotions Communication Regulate Social Distance: either brings people closer to us or push people away. Regulate Ongoing Interactions Release Inner States Affect = subjective "feeling" expressed outwardly Mood = feelings that are less intense & less specific than emotions; longer duration