Psychology 102, Week 9

Empathy

- Empathy is the capacity to understand another person's perspective, to feel what he or she feels. An empathetic person makes an emotional connection with others and feels compelled to help. -Other researchers argue that altruism is a form of selfless helping not motivated by benefits or feeling good about oneself -Certainly, after helping, people feel good about themselves, but some researchers argue that this is a consequence of altruism, not a cause. -Other researchers argue that helping is always self-serving because our egos are involved, and we receive benefits from helping. -It is challenging to determine experimentally the true motivation for helping, whether is it largely self-serving (egoism) or selfless (altruism). Thus, a debate on whether pure altruism exists continues.

Initiation

-A difficult initiation into a group influences us to like the group MORE, due to the justification of effort -We do not want to have wasted time and effort to join a group that we eventually leave. -A classic experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrated this justification of effort effect. -College students volunteered to join a campus group that would meet regularly to discuss the psychology of sex. -Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no initiation, an easy initiation, and a difficult initiation into the group. After participating in the first discussion, which was deliberately made very boring, participants rated how much they liked the group. -Participants who underwent a difficult initiation process to join the group rated the group more favorably than did participants with an easy initiation or no initiation

Clinical depression and attribution

-A person with clinical depression is more likely to show the reverse pattern of attribution: More likely to attribute their successes to external factors and failures to internal factors; and they show the opposite pattern of attributions when they think about the successes and failures of others

Persuasion

-An attempt to change a person's attitude about something, based on some kind of communication -Most of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces

Confirmation bias

-Another dynamic that can reinforce stereotypes is confirmation bias. -When interacting with the target of our prejudice, we tend to pay attention to information that is consistent with our stereotypic expectations and ignore information that is inconsistent with our expectations. -In this process, known as confirmation bias, we seek out information that supports our stereotypes and ignore information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes.

Homophobia

-Another form of prejudice is homophobia: prejudice and discrimination of individuals based solely on their sexual orientation. -Like ageism, homophobia is a widespread prejudice in U.S. society that is tolerated by many people. -Negative feelings often result in discrimination, such as the exclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people from social groups and the avoidance of LGBT neighbors and co-workers. -This discrimination also extends to employers deliberately declining to hire qualified LGBT job applicants.

In-groups and Out-groups

-As discussed previously in this section, we all belong to a gender, race, age, and social economic group. -These groups provide a powerful source of our identity and self-esteem. -These groups serve as our in-groups. An in-group is a group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to. -A group that we don't belong to, or an out-group, is a group that we view as fundamentally different from us. -For example, if you are female, your gender in-group includes all females, and your gender out-group includes all males. -People often view gender groups as being fundamentally different from each other in personality traits, characteristics, social roles, and interests. -Because we often feel a strong sense of belonging and emotional connection to our in-groups, we develop in-group bias: a preference for our own group over other groups. This in-group bias can result in prejudice and discrimination because the out-group is perceived as different and is less preferred than our in-group. One function of prejudice is to help us feel good about ourselves and maintain a positive self-concept. This need to feel good about ourselves extends to our in-groups: We want to feel good and protect our in-groups. -We seek to resolve threats individually and at the in-group level. This often happens by blaming an out-group for the problem. Scapegoating is the act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal.

Features of audience that affect persuasion

-Attention -Intelligence -Self-esteem -Age -In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. -People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem. -Finally, younger adults aged 18-25 are more persuadable than older adults.

Actor-observor bias

-Attributing other people's behaviour to internal factors while attributing our own behaviour to situational forces -As actors of behaviour, we have more information to explain our own behaviour -As observers, we have less information available; therefore, we tend to default to a dispositionist perspective -Actors tend to provide few internal explanations but many situational explanations for their own behavior (I like my girlfriend because of her internal qualities, not own internal traits (i need companionship)) -Observers tend to provide more dispositional explanations for a friend's behaviour

When do attitudes actually predict behaviour?

-Based on 3 components: 1) Attitude strength 2) Accessibility of attitude 3) Attitude ambivalence

Social facilitation

-Being in a group can improve performance -Social facilitation occurs when an individual performs better when an audience is watching than when the individual performs the behavior alone. -This typically occurs when people are performing a task for which they are skilled. -One common example is sports. Skilled basketball players will be more likely to make a free throw basket when surrounded by a cheering audience than when playing alone in the gym. -However, there are instances when even skilled athletes can have difficulty under pressure. -For example, if an athlete is less skilled or nervous about making a free throw, having an audience may actually hinder rather than help. -In sum, social facilitation is likely to occur for easy tasks, or tasks at which we are skilled, but worse performance may occur when performing in front of others, depending on the task.

Attribution

-Belief about the cause of a result

Reducing cognitive dissonance

-Bring our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviours in line - make them harmonious -Change our discrepant behaviour -Change our cognitions through rationalization or denial -Adding a new cognition (e.g., "Smoking suppresses my appetite so I don't become overweight, which is good for my health."). -Change beliefs, attitudes or behaviours

3 parties involved in bullying

-Bullying involves three parties: the bully, the victim, and witnesses or bystanders. -The act of bullying involves an imbalance of power with the bully holding more power—physically, emotionally, and/or socially over the victim. -The experience of bullying can be positive for the bully, who may enjoy a boost to self-esteem. -However, there are several negative consequences of bullying for the victim, and also for the bystanders. -Being the victim of bullying is associated with decreased mental health, including experiencing anxiety and depression. -Victims of bullying may underperform in schoolwork. -Bullying also can result in the victim committing suicide.

External locus of control

-Can also be beneficial -First-year uni students suffering poor academic performance and worrying about their ability to cope with university -One group given "attribution therapy": Informed that such problems were common during 1st year and grades typically went up in 2nd year. Other group only provided with emotional support -First group, who were encouraged to make an external attribution for their failures, performed BETTER on tests after the therapy, and they earned BETTER grades the following year

Internal locus of control

-Can be beneficial -One study showed that reactions of person to tornado warnings depended upon their locus of control -Internalizers would take action to minimize chances of injury (e.g., refuge in a bathroom -- one of the safer areas of a house); whereas, externalizers were likely to adopt a fatalistic attitude: "If it's time for me to die, so be it."

Dual-Process Model of Persuation

-Central route: Careful and deliberate consideration of persuasive arguments (the message), particularly informational content -Peripheral route: Results in snap judgements when considering persuasive arguments, usually based on superficial characteristics

Patterns in children who are at GREATER risk of being bullied

-Children who are emotionally reactive are at a greater risk for being bullied. -Bullies may be attracted to children who get upset easily because the bully can quickly get an emotional reaction from them. -Children who are different from others are likely to be targeted for bullying. -Children who are overweight, cognitively impaired, or racially or ethnically different from their peer group may be at higher risk. -Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender teens are at very high risk of being bullied and hurt due to their sexual orientation.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

-Cognitive Dissonance exists when related cognitions (or a cognition and a behaviour) are inconsistent - that is, when they contradict each other e.g: Belief: my health is not important Behaviour: I eat junk food - consistent eg2: Belief: My health is important Behaviour: I eat junk food -inconsistent (dissonant)

Stanford Prison Experiment

-Conducted in 1971 by Philip Zimbardo, a well-known experimental psychologist -Illustrates the phenomenon of obedience and conformity -Half of the participants = assigned to play the role of guards in a mock-up prison on Stanford, and other half instructed to be prisoners -Got volunteers --> ruled out those with drug abuse, history of crime, psychiatric issues, medical issues -Study lasted several days until it had to be halted because behaviour of the guards became so negative and demeaning to the prisoners -Situations where people are placed in positions of authority or where they must be obedient can created behaviour that is remarkable in nature -Guards become quite abusive n behaviour and language towards prisoners despite the fact that it was just a a mock study -Prisoners began to show signs of severe anxiety and hopelessness - they began targeting guard's abuse -The guards and prisoners enacted their social roles by engaging in behaviors appropriate to the roles: The guards gave orders and the prisoners followed orders. -Social norms require guards to be authoritarian and prisoners to be submissive. - The specific acts engaged by the guards and the prisoners derived from scripts.

Cyberbullying

-Cyberbullying, like bullying, is repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person. -What is unique about cyberbullying is that it is typically covert, concealed, done in private, and the bully can remain anonymous. -This anonymity gives the bully power, and the victim may feel helpless, unable to escape the harassment, and unable to retaliate. -Cyberbullying can take many forms, including harassing a victim by spreading rumors, creating a website defaming the victim, and ignoring, insulting, laughing at, or teasing the victim. -In cyberbullying, it is more common for girls to be the bullies and victims because cyberbullying is nonphysical and is a less direct form of bullying. -Girls who become cyberbullies often have been the victims of cyberbullying at one time. -The effects of cyberbullying are just as harmful as traditional bullying and include the victim feeling frustration, anger, sadness, helplessness, powerlessness, and fear. -Victims will also experience lower self-esteem. -Furthermore, recent research suggests that both cyberbullying victims and perpetrators are more likely to experience suicidal ideation, and they are more likely to attempt suicide than individuals who have no experience with cyberbullying.

Reconcilation between different groups

-Despite the group dynamics that seem only to push groups toward conflict, there are forces that promote reconciliation between groups: the expression of empathy, of acknowledgment of past suffering on both sides, and the halt of destructive behaviors.

What factors influences the success or failure of persuasion

-Early research on persuasion and attitude was led by Carl Hovland and he highlighted 3 variables of interest 1) Characteristics of the communicator (source) -- such as whether the person is an expert 2) Characteristics of the communication (message) -- such as what arguments are employed 3) Characteristics of the situation -- such as whether the person receiving the message is in comfortable surroundings

Social psychology

-Examines how people affect one another, looks at power of the situation -Social psychologists assert that an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are very much influenced by social situations -People will change their behaviour to align with the social situation @ hand -Social psychologists studies individuals in social context + how situational variables interact to influence behaviour -If we are in a new situation or are unsure how to behave, we will take our cues from other individuals

Social Loafing

-Exertion of less effort by a person working together with a group -Occurs when our individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group -Opposite of social loafing occurs when task is COMPLEX and DIFFICULT -In a group setting, such as the student work group, if your individual performance cannot be evaluated, there is less pressure for you to do well, and thus less anxiety or physiological arousal. This puts you in a relaxed state in which you can perform your best, if you choose. -If the task is a difficult one, many people feel motivated and believe that their group needs their input to do well on a challenging project.

Collectivist culture and fundamental attribution error

-Focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family, friends, and community, are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error -Collectivistic cultures, which tend to be found in east Asian countries and in Latin American and African countries, focus on the group more than on the individual. -This focus on others provides a broader perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others' behavior becomes more likely. -Collectivist culture: Relationship oriented, Focuses on group autonomy, situational perspective, interdependent, holistic thinking style

3 persuasion techniques

-Foot-in-the-Door: Follow a small reasonable request with a larger request. Effective sales strategy. After agreeing to a smaller request, you're more likely to agree to the larger request -Door-in-the-Face: Start with a large request (that you know won't likely be granted) and then follow it with a smaller request -LowBall: Provides an attractive offer then changes the agreement to something that is not attractive but was originally intended

Obedience

-Form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority -Change of a persons behaviour to comply with a demand by an authority figure

Homophily

-Homophily is the tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar. -Homophily limits our exposure to diversity. -By forming relationships only with people who are similar to us, we will have homogenous groups and will not be exposed to different points of view. -In other words, because we are likely to spend time with those who are most like ourselves, we will have limited exposure to those who are different than ourselves, including people of different races, ethnicities, social-economic status, and life situations.

Yale attitude change approach

-Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message

Verbal Descriptions

-How we describe another person can have a dramatic effect on other's perceptions of that person -If one person told another person that their new boss is MEAN that that will have an effect of that person's perception of the boss - Kelley (1950) gave a class a brief description of a visiting lecturer. Half the students received a description that listed his qualifications and then noted he was a "very warm" person. The other half received the same description but with an ending that noted he was a "rather cold" person. >The lecturer gave the same talk to all the students. Those who had "warm" descriptions rated the lecturer more favorably and were more likely to ask questions and interact with the lecturer. The students with the "cold" descriptions rated the lecturer as unsociable.

Aggression

-Humans engage in aggression when they seek to cause harm or pain to another person. -Aggression takes two forms depending on one's motives: hostile or instrumental. -Hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain; a fight in a bar with a stranger is an example of hostile aggression. -In contrast, instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain; a contract killer who murders for hire displays instrumental aggression.

Festinger and Carlsmith experiment on cognitive dissonance theory

-Hypothesis: High dissonance about attitudinal behaviour will cause attitude change -Students asked to do a very boring and tedious task --> Students asked to either: 1) Subjects paid 20 bucks for saying task is fun to other person (low dissonance) 2) Subjects paid 1 buck for saying task is fun (high dissonance) -Subjects asked how enjoyable task actually was -Individuals paying 1 dollar to lie actually related task as more enjoyable than the subjects paid 20 bucks -Theorize that 1 dollar group experienced cognitive dissonance since they did not have a good reason to justify their lying, they came to believe that the task was actually more engaging than it was, which is how they dealed with the cognitive dissonance they experienced -Dissonance about attitudinal behaviour does cause attitude change -Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance states that when we experience a conflict in our behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort (dissonance).

Physical Apperance

-In one experiment, Helen Berscheid and colleagues presented subjects with photographs of faces, and told them the experiment was "a study of accuracy in person perception" that would test their abilities to "form detailed impressions of others on the basis of a very few cues." -The students then rated the people shown in the photograph on many dimensions. e.g: How altruistic is this person? How exciting? How sensitive? How bold? Also asked to predict: (1) Likelihood person will have a successful marriage and (2) Likelihood that they would hold a high-status job -Physically attractive people were rated MORE LIKELY to have positive traits, even when those traits were contradictory -- like being sensitive and bold), more likely to have good marriages, and more likely to hold good jobs

Individualistic culture and fundamental attribution error

-Individualistic cultures (US, Canada, UK) promotes a focus on the individual -A person's disposition is thought to be the primary explanation for her behaviour -Individualistic Culture: Achievement oriented, Focus on autonomy, Dispositional perspective, Independent, Analytic thinking style

How professors should design group projects

-Individuals efforts shouldn't be evaluated to prevent anxiety of choking under pressure but task should be challenging -Alternatively, you can suggest that individuals' efforts should be evaluated, but the task should be easy so as to facilitate performance.

Central route

-Logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument's worthiness - In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change. -Works best when target of persuasion is analytical and willing to engage in processing the information

Social roles

-Major social determinant of human behaviour -Pattern of behaviour that is expected of a person in a given setting or group -Each one of us has several social roles -Social roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge -Nearly everyone in a given culture knows what behaviour is expected of a person in a given role -Social roles and related behaviour can vary across different settings, they can dictate our behaviour to the extent that identity and personality can vary with context

Milgram's Experiment findings

-Majority of participants in the study who were teachers continued to administer shocks even after the learner was no longer responding -They initially were responding with cries of pain, and then they stopped responding altogether. -During this time, the experimenter was meanwhile telling them, you should carry on with the experiment, this is an important study, don't stop now. Encouraging teacher to continue on with administration of the shocks -In most cases, teacher was obedient to the experiment even when shocks were severely dangerous intensity -Feeling of authority that Milgram provided may have promoted obedience -The confederate in the study always played the role of the learner -In the first published study, more than 50 percent of the participants gave the most powerful shock ( Yet, when the researcher told the participant-teachers to continue the shock, 65% of the participants continued the shock to the maximum voltage and to the point that the learner became unresponsive.)

Stereotypes

-Makes life cognitively easier -Widely held, and oversimplified belief about a group of people or thing - Walter Lippman (the journalist who coined the term stereotype) wrote that modern life contains "so much subtlety, so much variety, so many permutations and combinations... we have to reconstruct it on a simpler model before we can manage with it."

Allport's Study of Conformity

-Measured speed of people going through a stop sign, most people stopped at stop sign and fewer and fewer people have a higher speed of going through stop sign without stopping -Conforming behaviours follow a J-shaped pattern -J-shaped curve suggests to us that normative behaviour is to conform -Small deviations from the norm are relatively common but larger deviations are much less common

Milgram's Experiment

-Milgram was wondering whether the early studies on conformity by Sherif and Asch might be more powerful and relevant if extended to a situation where an authority figure was present -The volunteer participants were led to believe that they were participating in a study to improve learning and memory. -Experiment = authority figure, dressed in lab coat -Participant = the teacher -Actor = participant does not know it's actor, labelled the "Learner" -Teacher asked learner a question and if learner got the answer WRONG the teacher would administer an electric shock -For each question that the learner got wrong, the intensity of the electric shock that the teacher administered increased -There were clear labels on the shock administration device -Teacher didn't know that there actually was no electric shock -Learner was in a different room and teacher could only derive (in terms of feedback) the effects of the shock = cries and screams of the actor who was performing as the learner

Groupthink

-Modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus -In group situations, the group often takes action that individuals would not perform outside the group setting because groups make more extreme decisions than individuals do. -Moreover, groupthink can hinder opposing trains of thought. This elimination of diverse opinions contributes to faulty decision by the group.

Similarity and relationships

-More likely to become friends or lovers with someone who is similar to us in background, attitudes, and lifestyle -No evidence that opposites attract. -Rather, we are attracted to people who are most like us. -Sharing things in common will certainly make it easy to get along with others and form connections. -When you and another person share similar music taste, hobbies, food preferences, and so on, deciding what to do with your time together might be easy.

Characteristics of the Communication (Message)

-Most widely studied aspects of message = degree of fear which the message can inspire in the audience -Subtlety of message (quality of being important, but not obvious) is important -Sidedness (having more than one side) -Timing -Whether both sides = presented -More subtle messages = more persuasive than direct -Arguments that occur first, such as in a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back. However, if there is a delay after the first message, and before the audience needs to make a decision, the last message presented will tend to be more persuasive -Researchers compared high-fear, medium-fear, and low-fear presentations made to high school students about dental hygiene -High-fear group: Film containing many graphic depictions of tooth-decay, gum disease, discoloured teeth, dental drills and cancer -Low-fear group: Given a lecture that contained only techniques for effective brushing and teeth cleaning, and no unpleasant topics -Control group: No lecture at all The general finding: The high-fear group found the images terrifying -- but they did not show any improvements in their dental care over time.

Sherif's Study

-Muzaref Sherif showed the powerful effects that group norms can have on low-level perceptions -He studied the autokinetic effect: Visual illusion that is most readily produced by placing oneself in a totally dark room with nothing other than a very small point of light. Light will appear to move on its own -Sherif first asked his participants to judge the relative distance of these movements (e.g., some said light moved 5 inches) when they were placed alone in a room - they soon became relatively consistent in these assessments -Sherif then placed same subjects in a room with others and asked them to decide as a group about the same distance. People who made larger judgements (5 inches) began to compromise to smaller judgements (e.g, 2 inches) and vice versa -Effects of that interaction persisted when they were later tested alone -Sherifs experiment illustrates the formation of group norms: Subjects reached a consensus agreement about the light's amount of movement

Discrimination

-Negative action towards an individual as a result of one's membership in a particular group -When people act on their prejudiced attitudes towards a group of people -As a result of holding negative beliefs (stereotypes) and negative attitudes (prejudice) about a particular group, people often treat the target of prejudice poorly, such as excluding older adults from their circle of friends.

Prejudice

-Negative attitude and feeling towards an individual based solely on one's membership in a particular social group -Often begins in the form of a stereotype -Common against people who are members of an unfamiliar cultural groups -Thus, certain types of education, contact, interactions, and building relationships with members of different cultural groups can reduce the tendency toward prejudice. -In fact, simply imagining interacting with members of different cultural groups might affect prejudice.

Why do people conform

-Normative influence: People conform to social norms for fear of negative consequences --> they conform to fit in, feel good, and be accepted -Informational influences: People look to others for guidance about how to behave when in ambiguous situations --> they believe group is competent and has correct information, particularly when task or situation is ambiguous (what to do in an emergency situation) -People have a desire to get along well with others -Most people would rather not make a situation more difficult than it needs to be where possible -Most people desire the social acceptance and approval of others -A group of people who all have the same opinion may convince us that they are correct

Attribution Theory

-Older theory revived in the 1970s and 80s -Proposed in a book by Fritz Heider -We are all rather simple-minded amateur scientists in social scientists: We come up with hypotheses about why someone is behaving the way they are -Those hypotheses tend to attribute a person's behaviour to their environment and/or current situation (external factors) OR to their personal dispositions (internal factors) -- but almost NEVER to both e.g: Teacher comes into classroom and started yelling at one of you while everyone looked on: You would probably say: What an arrogant loser! He has a short temper = Attributing a person's behaviour to personal disposition (internal factors) -"He must not have slept well last night!", "Something bad must have happened to put him in a foul mood" = EXTERNAL FACTORS

Reciprocity

-Once we form relationships with people, we desire reciprocity. -Reciprocity is the give and take in relationships. We contribute to relationships, but we expect to receive benefits as well. -We are more likely to like and engage with people who like us back. -Self-disclosure is part of the two way street. -Self-disclosure is the sharing of personal information. -We form more intimate connections with people with whom we disclose important information about ourselves. -Indeed, self-disclosure is a characteristic of healthy intimate relationships, as long as the information disclosed is consistent with our own views.

Just-World Hypothesis

-One consequence of westerners' tendency to provide dispositional explanations for behavior is victim blame. -When people experience bad fortune, others tend to assume that they somehow are responsible for their own fate. -A common ideology, or worldview, in the United States is the just-world hypothesis. -The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve. -In order to maintain the belief that the world is a fair place, people tend to think that good people experience positive outcomes, and bad people experience negative outcomes. -The ability to think of the world as a fair place, where people get what they deserve, allows us to feel that the world is predictable and that we have some control over our life outcomes. -For example, if you want to experience positive outcomes, you just need to work hard to get ahead in life.

Negative consequence of the just-world hypothesis

-One negative consequence is people's tendency to blame poor individuals for their plight -"Poor are lazy and just do not want to work" -Dispositional explanations --> fundamental attribution error, blaming poor people for poverty ignores situational factors that impact them like high unemployment rates, recession, poor educational opportunities, and the familial cycle of poverty - Other research shows that people who hold just-world beliefs have negative attitudes toward people who are unemployed and people living with AIDS. -In the United States and other countries, victims of sexual assault may find themselves blamed for their abuse. -Victim advocacy groups, such as Domestic Violence Ended (DOVE), attend court in support of victims to ensure that blame is directed at the perpetrators of sexual violence, not the victims.

Dispositionism

-Our behaviour = determined by internal factors -Internal factor = attribute of a person and includes personality traits and temperament -Promoted by personality psychologists -In US most people favour this approach b/c we tend to think that people are in control of their own behaviours (personality, habits, temperament)

Self-Fulfilling Propechies

-Our expectations shape the way we interact with people -When we hold stereotypes about a person, we tend to treat the person according to our expectations and this treatment can influence the person to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs -Treating individuals according to stereotypic beliefs can lead to prejudice and discrimination. -For example, Snyder, Tanke, and Berscheid (1977) gave students a folder with information about a female student. Each folder included a photograph of either a beautiful or an unattractive woman. They were then asked to call this student to conduct an interview. The women receiving the call were blind to which photo the person calling them had seen. -Students who thought they were talking to a beautiful woman were friendlier on the phone, and were more likely to describe the woman as friendly and sociable.

Imagining social interactions w/ different cultural groups

-Participants imagine themselves interacting positively with someone from a different group --> increased positive attitudes towards them and increased positive traits associated with other group -Imagined social interaction can reduce anxiety associated with inter-group interactions

Ageism

-People often form judgments and hold expectations about people based on their age. -These judgments and expectations can lead to ageism, or prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age. -Typically, ageism occurs against older adults, but ageism also can occur toward younger adults.

Fundamental Attribution Error

-People tend to overemphasize the importance of personal/internal factors when trying to explain other people's behaviours, also known as correspondence bias or over attribution effect -We assume too much that the behaviour of another person is a TRAIT of that person, we underestimate power of the situation or state (e.g: bad mood) -Some researchers suggested that the fundamental attribution error may not be as powerful as portrayed, and a recent review of more than 173 published studies suggests that several factors (e.g., high levels of idiosyncrasy of the character and how well hypothetical events are explained) play a role in determining just how influential the fundamental attribution error is

Externalizers

-People who consistently believe that events are caused by factors beyond their personal control -External locus of control

Internalizers

-People who consistently take responsibility for their OWN actions, or who feel they have the power to do something about a situation -Internal locus of control

Altruism

-People's desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping. -People acting in altruistic ways may disregard the personal costs associated with helping. -May operate on empathy

Several symptoms of groupthink

-Perceiving the group as invulnerable or invincible—believing it can do no wrong -Believing the group is morally correct -Self-censorship by group members, such as withholding information to avoid disrupting the group consensus -The quashing of dissenting group members' opinions -The shielding of the group leader from dissenting views -Perceiving an illusion of unanimity among group members -Holding stereotypes or negative attitudes toward the out-group or others' with differing viewpoints

Confederate

-Person who is aware of the experiment and work for researcher -Used to manipulate social situations as part of the research design and naive participants believe that confederates are like them (uninformed participants)

Script

-Person's knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a specific setting -e.g: how you act on first day of school, when you walk into elevator, or are at a resturaunt -Important at guiding behaviour in a given situation

Characteristics of the communicator

-Personal characteristics of a communicator can alter the credibility of a message -Credibility of speaker, physical attractiveness of speaker = more = more persuasive and more trustworthy -Person who is highly respected, or recognized as an authority on a subject, is generally more persuasive -Communicators who are "good-looking" and/or "trustworthy" are more likely to persuade the audience, all other things being equal e.g: Use of famous people to advertise things

Intrapersonal topics

-Pertain to individual -Emotions, attitudes, self, social cognition (how we think about ourselves and others)

Interpersonal topics

-Pertains to dyads and groups -Includes helping behaviour, aggression, prejudice, and discrimination, attraction, and close relationships, and group processes and intergroup relationships

Definition of an Attitude

-Positive or negative orientations toward a target -Disposition to respond in a favourable or unfavourable manner to given objects -Likes and dislikes -All definitions are common in that their emphasis is on evaluation and an attitude is not a neutral stance; it is a value judgement -Evaluation of a person, idea, or object -Influenced by external forces and internal influences we control -Attitudes and thoughts not always changed by situational pressures, but can be consciously changed by our own free will

Why do Prejudice and Discrimination exist?

-Prejudice and discrimination persist in society due to social learning and conformity to social norms. -Children learn prejudiced attitudes and beliefs from society: their parents, teachers, friends, the media, and other sources of socialization, such as Facebook. -If certain types of prejudice and discrimination are acceptable in a society, there may be normative pressures to conform and share those prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. -For example, public and private schools are still somewhat segregated by social class. -Historically, only children from wealthy families could afford to attend private schools, whereas children from middle- and low-income families typically attended public schools. If a child from a low-income family received a merit scholarship to attend a private school, how might the child be treated by classmates?

Behaviour

-Product of both the situation (e.g., cultural influences, social roles, and the presence of bystanders) and of the person (e.g., personality characteristics.) -Subfields of psychology tend to focus on one influence or behaviour over others

Cognitive dissonance

-Psychological discomfort arising from holding 2 or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviours, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions) -Aroused by inconsistent beliefs and behaviours -Later research documented that only conflicting cognitions that threaten individuals' positive self-image cause dissonance. -Additional research found that dissonance is not only psychologically uncomfortable but also can cause physiological arousal and activate regions of the brain important in emotions and cognitive functioning. -When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable

3 pieces of info we automatically process when we meet strangers

-Race -Gender -Age -Although secondary characteristics (height, clothing, etc.) are important in forming a first impression of a stranger, the social categories of race, gender, and age provide a wealth of information about an individual. -This information, however, often is based on stereotypes. We may have different expectations of strangers depending on their race, gender, and age.

Racism

-Racism is prejudice and discrimination against an individual based solely on one's membership in a specific racial group (such as toward African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, European Americans). -One reason modern forms of racism, and prejudice in general, are hard to detect is related to the dual attitudes model. -Humans have two forms of attitudes: explicit attitudes, which are conscious and controllable, and implicit attitudes, which are unconscious and uncontrollable. -Because holding egalitarian views is socially desirable, most people do not show extreme racial bias or other prejudices on measures of their explicit attitudes. -However, measures of implicit attitudes often show evidence of mild to strong racial bias or other prejudices.

Girls vs. boys bullying

-Research finds gender differences in how girls and boys bully others. -Boys tend to engage in direct, physical aggression such as physically harming others. -Girls tend to engage in indirect, social forms of aggression such as spreading rumors, ignoring, or socially isolating others.

Pygmalion Effect

-Rosenthal's finding was dubbed the Pygmalion Effect, after a Greek myth wherein the sculptor Pygmalion falls in love with a statue of a beautiful woman he had created. -This effect has been documented as robust in a number of settings other than the classroom: (1) work setting: where the biasing effect is the expectations of employers about their employees (2) courtrooms: where the biasing effect is the expectations about the defendant's guilt or innocence. (3) nursing homes: where the biasing effect is the expectation that a patient will get better or worse. -A person's expectation of another can alter the behaviour of another leading to self-fulfilling prophecies

Locus of Control Theory

-Rotter agreed with Heider that the differences between internal attribution and external attribution was important, and he pointed out that we also make attributions about our own behaviour

Variations of original Milgram experiment

-Several variations of the original Milgram experiment were conducted to test the boundaries of obedience. -When certain features of the situation were changed, participants were less likely to continue to deliver shock. -For example, when the setting of the experiment was moved to an office building, the percentage of participants who delivered the highest shock dropped to 48%. -When the learner was in the same room as the teacher, the highest shock rate dropped to 40%. -When the teachers' and learners' hands were touching, the highest shock rate dropped to 30%. When the researcher gave the orders by phone, the rate dropped to 23%. These variations show that when the humanity of the person being shocked was increased, obedience decreased. Similarly, when the authority of the experimenter decreased, so did obedience.

Sexism

-Sexism is prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex. -Typically, sexism takes the form of men holding biases against women, but either sex can show sexism toward their own or their opposite sex. -Like racism, sexism may be subtle and difficult to detect. -Common forms of sexism in modern society include gender role expectations, such as expecting women to be the caretakers of the household. -Sexism also includes people's expectations for how members of a gender group should behave. -Sexism can exist on a societal level such as in hiring, employment opportunities, and education. Women are less likely to be hired or promoted in male-dominated professions such as engineering, aviation, and construction.

Social norms

-Shared knowledge -Group's expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behaviour for its members - how to behave, how to think

Other factors that make a person more likely to yield to group pressure

-Size of majority: greater number = more conformity. But there is an upper limit, e.g: beyond 7 individuals in Asch's study, conformity levelled off and decreased slightly -The presence of another dissenter: If there is at least one dissenter, conformity rates drop to near zero. -The public or private nature of the responses: When responses are made publicly (in front of others), conformity is more likely; however, when responses are made privately. -Age, gender, socio-cultural background -Conformity may have decreased now, people are more independent

Self esteem and behaviour

-Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior. -In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits. -Often, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our self-esteem or positive self-image

Bullying

-Socializing and playing with other children is beneficial for children's psychological development. -Bullying is repeated negative treatment of another person, often an adolescent, over time -A one-time incident in which one child hits another child on the playground would not be considered bullying: Bullying is repeated behavior. -The negative treatment typical in bullying is the attempt to inflict harm, injury, or humiliation, and bullying can include physical or verbal attacks. -However, bullying doesn't have to be physical or verbal, it can be psychological.

Asch's Studies

-Solomon Asch performed a series of studies that illustrated the power of social pressure -Had experiment present to a group of individuals lines of different lengths - asked to identify which of a set of 3 lines (A,B,C) best matched a target line -Only 1 true participant in the study and the rest were actors -1st trial: Everyone gave the correct answer -2nd trial: All of the participants responded the correct answer again -3rd trial: Actors did something different, and presented all participants with 3 lines and target line, and now all the actors said the wrong answer (line B even though it was actually C), and the true participant in many cases conformed and also said B like the other participants -Subsequent trials: Actors responded that MOST dis-similar line matched target line, and in many instances the actual participant conformed to the group norms and gave the wrong answer -Of the 50 participants: Participants conformed in 37 percent of the trials -13 participants never conformed -14 participants conformed on more than 1/2 the trials - Asch (1955) found that 76% of participants conformed to group pressure at least once by indicating the incorrect line. -Number of opponents/ actors vs. Number of errors made by true participant graph: 1 opponent, very few errors, but as close to 5 or more opponents, number of errors that true participants made increased and plateaued

Conformist

-Someone who tries to be the same as everyone else -Anxiety of standing out generally pushes us to conformity

Anger involves attributions

-Something bad happening isn't enough: It also usually has to be perceived as under someone -If cut off on highway: you are quite likely to be less angry, but if you saw sign baby on board you may be less angry

Sterotype

-Specific belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of individual characteristics -Becomes overgeneralized and applied to ALL members of a group -For example, someone holding prejudiced attitudes toward older adults, may believe that older adults are slow and incompetent. -We cannot possibly know each individual person of advanced age to know that all older adults are slow and incompetent. -Therefore, this negative belief is overgeneralized to all members of the group, even though many of the individual group members may in fact be spry and intelligent.

Stereotype vs Prejudice vs Discrimination

-Stereotype: Cognitive; thoughts about people. Overgeneralized beliefs about people may lead to prejudice. "Yankees fans are arrogant and obnoxious" -Prejudice: Affective; feelings about people, both positive and negative. Feelings may influence treatment of others, leading to discrimination. "I hate Yankees fans; they make me angry." -Discrimination: Behaviour; positive or negative treatment of others. Holding stereotypes and harboring prejudice may lead to excluding, avoiding, and biased treatment of group members. "I would never hire nor become friends with a person if I knew he or she were a Yankees fan." ****can be NEGATIVE or POSITIVE****

Group polarization

-Strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group -If a group initially favors a viewpoint, after discussion the group consensus is likely a stronger endorsement of the viewpoint. Conversely, if the group was initially opposed to a viewpoint, group discussion would likely lead to stronger opposition. -Group polarization explains many actions taken by groups that would not be undertaken by individuals. -Group polarization can be observed at political conventions, when platforms of the party are supported by individuals who, when not in a group, would decline to support them. A more everyday example is a group's discussion of how attractive someone is.

Quizmaster study

-Student participants randomly assigned to play the role of a questioner (the quizmaster) or a contestant in a quiz game -Questioners developed difficult questions to which they knew the answers, and they presented these questions to the contestants -Contestants answered correctly only 4 out of 10 times -After the task, the questioners and contestants were asked to rate their own general knowledge compared to the average student. -Questioners did not rate their general knowledge higher than the contestants, but the contestants rated the questioners' intelligence higher than their own. -In a second study, observers of the interaction also rated the questioner as having more general knowledge than the contestant. -The obvious influence on performance is the situation. -The questioners wrote the questions, so of course they had an advantage. Both the contestants and observers made an internal attribution for the performance. They concluded that the questioners must be more intelligent than the contestants.

Definition of Conformity

-The likeness or similarity of behaviour or appearance. Occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure -Changing your behavior to go along with the group even if you do not agree with the group

Most influential factor in determining with whom you become friends and whom you form romantic relationships?

-The people with whom you have the most contact. -This most important factor is proximity. -You are more likely to be friends with people you have regular contact with. -For example, there are decades of research that shows that you are more likely to become friends with people who live in your dorm, your apartment building, or your immediate neighbourhood than with people who live farther away. -It is simply easier to form relationships with people you see often because you have the opportunity to get to know them.

Perripheral route

-The peripheral route is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message. -Instead of focusing on the facts and a product's quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. -For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. -This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. -This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behavior change. - The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of product placement.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

-Theory of attitude developed in 80s by Petty and Capioppo -Considers variables of the attitude change approach -that is, features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when attitude change will occur. -2 main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral -People reacted differently to a message depending on whether they gave that message peripheral attention (e.g., advertisement occurring in the background) vs. full attention -If a person gives an advertisement peripheral attention, then an attractive person or famous person will sway them more than if they pay attention to what is being said in the advertisement -The more you elaborate on the message, the less likely you are to show a non-specific positive emotional response to it -Ads that surround a product with beautiful people or babies or cute animals, may work most of the time

Evolutionary function of aggression

-There are many different theories as to why aggression exists. Some researchers argue that aggression serves an evolutionary function. -Men are more likely than women to show aggression. -From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, human male aggression, like that in nonhuman primates, likely serves to display dominance over other males, both to protect a mate and to perpetuate the male's genes. -Sexual jealousy is part of male aggression; males endeavor to make sure their mates are not copulating with other males, thus ensuring their own paternity of the female's offspring. -Although aggression provides an obvious evolutionary advantage for men, women also engage in aggression. -Women typically display instrumental forms of aggression, with their aggression serving as a means to an end. -For example, women may express their aggression covertly, for example, by communication that impairs the social standing of another person.

Preventing groupthinking

-There are several strategies that can improve group decision making including seeking outside opinions, voting in private, having the leader withhold position statements until all group members have voiced their views, conducting research on all viewpoints, weighing the costs and benefits of all options, and developing a contingency plan.

Rosenthal and Jacobsen experiment about how teachers can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies

-They showed that if teachers were led to expect enhanced performance from some children then they did indeed show that enhancement, which in some cases was about twice that showed by other children in the same class -In the experiment, all the students in a class were given an IQ test. After the results were scored, the researchers told the teachers that 5 students (picked at random) had unusually high IQ scores and would probably be "spurters" who leaped ahead of their classmates during the remainder of the year. -By the end of the year, the five "spurters" had gained in their academic performance much more than the other students. -Evidently the teachers treated them differently after being told to expect sudden improvement.

Frustration aggression theory

-This theory states that when humans are prevented from achieving an important goal, they become frustrated and aggressive.

Non-conformist

-Tries to be different

What other things can bias person perception beyond stereotypes?

-Verbal descriptions, Physical Appearance

Stiatuationism

-View that our behaviour and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings -View that social psychologists tend to take, but modern social psychology takes both situationism and dispositionism in account (actually have a field called social-personality psychology that studies interaction of internal and situational factors and behaviour)

Prosocial behaviour

-Voluntary behaviour with the intent to help other people

Person Perception

-We make a lot of evaluations about others in a very short period of time, and these snapshots are usually based on stereotypes

Why we underestimate the influence of the situation on the behaviour of others?

-We often do not have all the information we need to make a situational explanation for another person's behaviour -The only info we have is what is observable, so we have a tendency to assume the behaviour is due to a dispositional, or internal, factor -When explaining our own behaviours, we have much more information available to us

Self-Serving Bias

-We tend to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failure to external failures (in contrast to what we attribute to other individuals) -Following an outcome, self-serving bias are those attributions that enable us to see ourselves in favourable light (for example, making internal attributions for success and external attributions for failures). -Protects self-esteem -e.g: We get a great job --> we are likely to think it's because we are well qualified for that position Fail to get a great job: Think that there is someone nasty on hiring committee

Stenberg's Triangular Theory of Love

-We typically love the people with whom we form relationships, but the type of love we have for our family, friends, and lovers differs. -Robert Sternberg (1986) proposed that there are three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. -These three components form a triangle that defines multiple types of love: this is known as Sternberg's triangular theory of love. -Intimacy is the sharing of details and intimate thoughts and emotions. Passion is the physical attraction—the flame in the fire. Commitment is standing by the person—the "in sickness and health" part of the relationship. -Sternberg (1986) states that a healthy relationship will have all three components of love—intimacy, passion, and commitment—which is described as consummate love. -However, different aspects of love might be more prevalent at different life stages. -Other forms of love include liking, which is defined as having intimacy but no passion or commitment. -Infatuation is the presence of passion without intimacy or commitment. -Empty love is having commitment without intimacy or passion. -Companionate love, which is characteristic of close friendships and family relationships, consists of intimacy and commitment but no passion. -Romantic love is defined by having passion and intimacy, but no commitment. -Finally, fatuous love is defined by having passion and commitment, but no intimacy, such as a long term sexual love affair.

Social exchange theory

-What determines whether we are satisfied with and stay in a relationship? -One theory that provides an explanation is social exchange theory. According to social exchange theory, we act as naïve economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintaining a relationship with others -People are motivated to maximize the benefits of social exchanges, or relationships, and minimize the costs. -People prefer to have more benefits than costs, or to have nearly equal costs and benefits, but most people are dissatisfied if their social exchanges create more costs than benefits. -If you have ever decided to commit to a romantic relationship, you probably considered the advantages and disadvantages of your decision. What are the benefits of being in a committed romantic relationship? -You may have considered having companionship, intimacy, and passion, but also being comfortable with a person you know well. -What are the costs of being in a committed romantic relationship? You may think that over time boredom from being with only one person may set in; moreover, it may be expensive to share activities such as attending movies and going to dinner. However, the benefits of dating your romantic partner presumably outweigh the costs, or you wouldn't continue the relationship.

Compliance

-When someone's vote changes if it is made in public versus private, this is known as compliance. -Going along with a request or demand -Compliance is a form of conformity. -Compliance is going along with a request or demand, even if you do not agree with the request. -In Asch's studies, the participants complied by giving the wrong answers, but privately did not accept that the obvious wrong answers were correct.

Causes of groupthink

-When the group is highly cohesive, or has a strong sense of connection, maintaining group harmony may become more important to the group than making sound decisions. -If the group leader is directive and makes his opinions known, this may discourage group members from disagreeing with the leader. -If the group is isolated from hearing alternative or new viewpoints, groupthink may be more likely.

Bystander Effect

-Witnesses not intervening to help a victim -The bystander effect is a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. -Instead, they just watch what is happening. -Social psychologists hold that we make these decisions based on the social situation, not our own personality variables. -Social psychologists claim that diffusion of responsibility is the likely explanation. -Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group. -Because there were many witnesses to the attack on Genovese, as evidenced by the number of lit apartment windows in the building, individuals assumed someone else must have already called the police. -The responsibility to call the police was diffused across the number of witnesses to the crime.

2 key factors that determine degree to which an indiviudual conformed:

1) Group unanimity 2) Group size

Techniques to prevent persuasion

1) Inoculation - The person is exposed to weak attacks against a favoured position. Those attacks must be weak enough that they do not actually change attitudes -- and the person is encouraged to fight them off and thereby learn to resist future attacks -Inoculation approaches = more powerful than simply telling a person that they were right and that they should ignore future attempts at persuasion 2) Forewarning - Letting a person know ahead of time that a favoured attitude will be challenged. Allows a person to rally defences or prepare to resist the message. -If a person is forewarned that a salesperson will call with a misleading offer, the person is unlikely to find the salesperson persuasive.

3 main dimensions of attribution

1) Locus of control (internal or external) 2) Stability (stable or unstable) 3) Controllability (controllable or uncontrollable) - In this context, stability refers the extent to which the circumstances that result in a given outcome are changeable. -The circumstances are considered stable if they are unlikely to change. -Controllability refers to the extent to which the circumstances that are associated with a given outcome can be controlled. -Obviously, those things that we have the power to control would be labeled controllable

Key factors that determine levels of obedience

1) Psychological distance between teacher and experimenter 2) Psychological/Physical distance between teacher and learner 3) Credibility of the lab and experimenter (If teacher didn't believe that experimenter was a credible individual or figure of authority, they were less likely to be obedient) 4) Voices of dissent against experimenter by other individuals --> teacher less likely to be obedient

Attraction

1) We look for physically attractive people. People differ in what they consider attractive, and attractiveness is culturally influenced. Women: high cheekbones, large eyes, narrow jaw line, lower waist to hip ratio Men: tall, broad shoulders, narrow waist Symmetric faces and bodies 2) Social traits Women: warmth, affection, social skills Men: achievement, leadership qualities, job skills -Although humans want mates who are physically attractive, this does not mean that we look for the most attractive person possible. -In fact, this observation has led some to propose what is known as the matching hypothesis which asserts that people tend to pick someone they view as their equal in physical attractiveness and social desirability. -For example, you and most people you know likely would say that a very attractive movie star is out of your league. So, even if you had proximity to that person, you likely would not ask them out on a date because you believe you likely would be rejected. -People weigh a potential partner's attractiveness against the likelihood of success with that person. If you think you are particularly unattractive (even if you are not), you likely will seek partners that are fairly unattractive (that is, unattractive in physical appearance or in behavior).

3 possible components of attitudes

1) cognitive component (beliefs, ideas/knowledge) 2) affective component (emotions, feelings) 3) behavioural component (predisposition to act)

Attitudes on gun control components

1) cognitive component: gun owners shoot themselves more than intruders 2) affective component: i hate guns 3) behavioural component i vote to support gun control policies whenever possible