Psychology 2

Heuristic

"Rules of Thumb." Heuristics can be helpful in problem solving, but can also cause functional fixedness and a lack of cognitive flexibility.

Anal Stage (18-36 months)

(18-36 months) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization Need to satisfy the lower level before moving up levels

Opiates/Opioids

-naturally occurring form of opium= Opiates - includes morphine and codeine Synthetic derivatives of opium= Opioids Include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin Bind to opioid receptors in PNS and CNS and cause decreased pain and sense of euphoria Overdose can cause death by respiratory suppression

Trust vs. Mistrust

0-18 months Favorable: trust in world and hope for the future Negative: distrust and fear

General Adaptation Syndrome

1) Alarm Stage 2) Resistance Stage 3) Exhaustion Stage

Freud's theory of psychosexual development

1) Oral 2) Anal 3) Phallic 4) Latency 5) Genital

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

1) Pre-conventional Morality (pre-adolescence) = Obedience, Self-Interest 2) Conventional Morality (adolescence to adulthood) = Conformity, Law and Order 3) Post-conventional Morality (adulthood) = Social Contract, Universal Human Ethics

Carl Rogers and Self-Concept

1) Self-Image 2) Self-Esteem 3) The Ideal Self = Who I wish I could be.

Erickson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

1) Trust vs. Mistrust 2) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 3) Initiative vs. Guilt 4) Industry vs. Inferiority 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation 7) Generativity vs. Stagnation 8) Integrity vs. Despair

identity vs. role confusion

12-18 Positive: true sense of self and uniqueness Negative: identity confusion

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

18 months to 3 years Favorable: sense of self efficacy Negative: self doubt

Intimacy vs. Isolation

18-40 Positive: intimate relationships and love Negative: loneliness

Initiative vs. Guilt

3-5 Positive: sense of purpose and self motivation Negative: guilt and inadequacy

Generativity vs. Stagnation

40-65 years Positive: making meaningful contributions to society Negative: unable to contribute to society in meaningful ways

Industry vs. Inferiority

5-12 Positive: sense of competence and understanding Negative: sense of inferiority

integrity vs despair

65+ Positive: wisdom and integrity Negative: dissatisfaction with life's outcomes

Self-concept

A collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. Self-Concept=Self-Schemas+Self-Esteem+Self-Image+Self-Identity+PastSelf+Present Self + Future Self Different from other "self-terms" because it is a collective mental picture of oneself: "I am a tall, young, attractive, athletic male." Answers many questions: "Who am I?"; "Who do others think I Am?"; "What are my strengths?"; "What is my nature?"; "How do I behave?" THINK: MY TOTAL CONCEPTION OF MYSELF

Emotion

A complex psychological state of mind involving one's mood, feelings, and reactions to circumstances.

fornix

A long projection from the hippocampus that connects to other nuclei in the limbic system.

self-image

A persistent mental picture of one's appearance and personality, including observable traits (height, weight, hair color, gender, etc.) and self-knowledge derived from experience or internalization of the judgments of others (e.g., people think I'm fat; people think I'm handsome; people think I'm nice). Different from other "self-terms" because it is my mental picture of my own personal characteristics: "I am a young, attractive, athletic woman." Answers the questions: "How do I see myself?"; "How do others see me" (In ways I've internalized); "How do I perceive that others see me?" THINK: MY APPEARANCE

role playing effects attitudes

A person acting out a role is likely to internalize the attitudes associated with that role. In this case, one's own behavior (acting a part) directly impacts, almost determines, the attitudes they will hold. Ex: zimbardo prison experiment

self-esteem

A person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. Relatively stable and enduring. Different from other "self-terms" because it is a valuation judgment of one's worth: "I feel good about being a fast runner. Being a fast runner makes me feel like an important person." Answers the questions: "How do I feel about myself?"; "Why am I of worth?" THINK: MY VALUE

social identity

A person's sense of who they are based on the groups to which they belong. This is very closely related to "Identity" as defined above, except that the term identity INCLUDES one's social identity but is not exclusively one's group-based identity. Identity by itself defines what makes a person unique relative to others. Social identity is that portion of our self-identity derived specifically from group membership.

Self-schemas

A pre-existing, organized pattern of thought (i.e., cognitive framework) about oneself that is used to categorize or process information. Self-schemas, like schemas generally, can be helpful, but can also result in bias or omission of information. Different from other" self-terms" because it is my cognitive framework about myself: "I am an athlete; therefore, I make friends who are also athletic." Answers the questions: "What does this mean [based on my schemas]?" "How will I act [based on my schemas]." THINK: HOW MY IDEAS OF WHO I AM ARE USED TO CATEGORIZE NEW INFORMATION.

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

A psychologist staged interactions between two groups of college students, one group playing the role of prison guards, and the other the role of prisoners. Within only six days, the attitudes of the "guards" had become so harsh and domineering, and the attitudes of the "prisoners" had become so despondent, defiant, or depressed, that Zimbardo ended the study prematurely on ethical grounds.

cognitive dissonance theory

A state of unpleasant psychological tension experienced when one holds two attitudes or beliefs that are in conflict with one another. A person is likely to ease the tension by changing their attitude or belief to remove the conflict. This case illustrates that our behaviors are often in conflict with our attitudes. Ex: Consider a situation in which a man who places a value on being environmentally responsible just purchased a new car that he later discovers does not get great gas mileage. The conflict: -It is important for the man to take care of the environment. -He is driving a car that is not environmentally friendly. In order to reduce this dissonance between belief and behavior, he can sell the car and purchase another one that gets better gas mileage, or he can reduce his emphasis on environmental responsibility. In the case of the second option, his dissonance could be further minimized by engaging in actions that reduce the impact of driving a gas-guzzling vehicle, such as utilizing public transportation more frequently or riding his bike to work.

Functional attitudes theory

A theory asserting that attitudes serve three positive functions: Knowledge: Attitudes give us valuable information about other people, events, and the likelihood of outcomes. Ego-Expressive: Attitudes are one route through which we express our self- identity. Adaptive: Socially-acceptable attitudes provide an adaptive advantage in society much like certain random mutations provide an evolutionary advantage.

Schachter-Singer Theory

A theory of emotion that states that both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal must occur before an emotion is consciously experienced. Ex: "I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy"

looking-glass self

A theory suggesting that a person's self-concept is largely determined by how they believe others see them. From this perspective, the self is not a function of what we are, but what others think we are.

social identity theory

A theory suggesting that individuals derive significant pride and self- esteem from their group memberships. As a result, individuals always strive to INCREASE the status of the group to which they belong (i.e., their IN-GROUPS), and will discriminate and hold prejudices against other groups to which they do not belong (i.e., their OUT-GROUPS).

self-determination theory

A third needs-based theory emphasizing the motivational importance of three basic needs: • Autonomy (i.e., a sense that one is in control of one's own life choices) • Competence (i.e., feeling capable at a task; the ability to excel at something) • Relatedness (i.e., a sense of being accepted in social settings or relationships)

Parasomnias

Abnormal movements, behavior, perceptions, or emotions during sleep. Include sleepwalking and night terrors

Attitude influences behavior

Absent any strong external influences, attitude generally guides behavior. The more strongly held the attitude, the more directly and quickly it will determine behavior.

accommodation

Adapting our current schemes to fit new information

role taking

Adopting and acting out a particular social role. This could be as simple as a child playing "cops and robbers," or the more complex types of role-taking that help adults feel empathy for others (i.e., "put yourself in someone else's shoes").

Stages of Consciousness

Alertness, Sleep, Dreaming, Hypnosis, Meditation, and Drug-Altered.

Social cognitive theory of attitude change

Although often listed as a separate theory, social- cognitive theory essentially predicts that attitudes will change because of observational learning experienced by the person doing the changing. That is why observational learning was included in the discussion above of the Learning Theory of Attitude Change. It is important to note, however, that social-cognitive theory is not ONLY about modeling. Alfred Bandura suggested it was about how observation, personal factors (perceptions, expectations), and environment (reinforcement, social influences) interact with one another to produce learning—and thereby change.

Expectancy-value theory

An aspect of Cognitive Motivational Theory. The magnitude of one's motivation to engage in a behavior is a function of an interplay between an individual's 1) expectation of success and 2) perception of the relative value of the rewards associated with success.

Components of emotional memory

An emotional memory has two components, One implicit and one explicit. The explicit portion is the CONSCIOUS memory of having experienced the emotion. The implicit portion is the UNCONSCIOUS encoding and storage of the actual feeling. This implicit memory may be retrieved, and the emotion "felt again," when one encounters a similar experience, or during explicit recall of the original event.

Galton theory of intelligence

Argued that individual heritable characteristics contributed to intelligence as much as any gene contributes to physical traits. Although he introduced "genetic intelligence," he also pioneered the nature vs. nurture debate (he coined the actual phrase) by conducting the first twin studies involving monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Galton was the first to use the questionnaire/survey as an experimental tool. Finally, Galton introduced the concept of "correlation" and the method of calculating statistical correlations.

attitude

Attitude: A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can be a tendency to be positive, negative, biased, or neutral. It is possible to be uncertain or unclear of one's attitudes— something colloquially described as having "mixed feelings."

Learning theory of attitude change

Attitudes can be changed by learning. This includes classical conditioning (associating positive feelings with the target attitude or object), operant conditioning (reinforcing the desired attitude or punishing the undesirable one), and observational learning (modeling the desirable attitude can lead to change).

arousal theory of motivation

Behavior is motivated by a desire to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. That optimum level varies among individuals. People seek new interests, action, or stimuli when arousal is low to increase arousal. When arousal is too high (hyperstimulation) they reduce activity or seek more relaxing activities to reduce the level of arousal. For example, if our levels drop too low we might seek stimulation by going out to a nightclub with friends. If these levels become too elevated and we become overstimulated, we might be motivated to select a relaxing activity such as going for a walk or taking a nap.

incentive theory of motivation

Behavior is motivated by a desire to obtain rewards or to avoid punishments.

Instinct theory of motivation

Behavior is motivated by evolutionary instincts. Ex: bird migration, turtles walking to the sea after hatching

drive-reduction theory

Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce or eliminate an uncomfortable or undesirable internal state. Hull used the term drive to refer to the state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs. Thirst, hunger, and the need for warmth are all examples of drives. A drive creates an unpleasant state, a tension that needs to be reduced. In order to reduce this state of tension, humans and animals seek out ways to fulfill these biological needs. We get a drink when we are thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. We turn up the thermostat when we are cold. He suggested that humans and animals will then repeat any behavior that reduces these drives.

Need based theory

Behavior is motivated by the drive to satisfy one's most urgent needs.

Cognitive theory of emotion

Behavior is motivated by thinking; including plans, goals, expectations, perceptions and attributions.

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. According to Gardner, mental and physical abilities are related. Athletes, dancers, actors, and performers often display high levels of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

Characteristics model of attitude change

Carl Hovland proposed that attitude change is best accomplished when we consider the characteristics of the target, the source, the message, as well as cognitive routes.

Cocaine effects

Causes blockage in dopamine reuptake at synapse Increases HR and BP Euphoria and high levels of energy Anesthetic and vasoconstriction properties

Emotional approach to stress management

Change how you feel about the stressor through positive thinking, taking personal responsibility, internal locus of control, etc.

The three primary components of attitude

Cognitive = How you THINK about something or somebody. Affective (Emotional) = How you FEEL about something or somebody. Behavioral = How you BEHAVE toward, or with respect to, somebody or something.

Jean Piaget

Considered to be the father of developmental psychology and a major contributor to Cognitive Theory

controlled processing vs. automatic processing

Controlled processing requires attention, while automatic processing does not. When you are first learning to drive a car, that task requires an incredible amount of attention, and it would be difficult to engage in some other task that required attention at the same time. However, as tasks become well-learned, processing becomes more automatic and requires less active attention. This is why you can engage in a task like driving and carrying on a meaningful conversation once you have mastered driving.

Broca's area

Controls Motor aspects of speech (e.g., moving your mouth and tongue)

adaptive role of emotion

Darwin proposed that emotion, like all other traits, evolved via natural selection. Possible support for this theory lies in the fact that some emotions are tied to evolutionarily older parts of the brain, indicating they may have evolved earlier in our ancestral history. The facial expressions associated with some emotions appear to have functional advantages that could logically be selected during evolution. For example, the universal emotion of disgust includes a scrunching of the nose and mouth, which would limit the intake of foul odors. Similarly, the expression of fear usually involves widening of the eyes, which would allow in more light and visual information for identification of a perceived threat.

Sleep Stage 4 (NREM)

Deep sleep, often called "delta sleep" because the EEG contains slow (low frequency) delta waves. Parasomnias most likely to occur in this stage

conventional morality

Develops in early adolescence Stage III Conformity: person seeks approval of others (I shouldn't steal the drug cuz stealing is wrong) Stage IV Law and Order: maintains social order in highest regard (If everyone stole things they couldn't afford people who produce them wont be able to do business)

Cognitive theory (Hall) of dreaming

Dreams are a conceptualization of our experiences; they are visualizations of our thoughts and perceptions about five concepts: our self, others, the world around us, morals, and conflict.

Night terrors

Experience of severe anxiety, dread, or terror during the first few hours of Stages 3-4 (non-REM) sleep. Most common in children. Associated with screaming, thrashing, or suddenly sitting up in bed, and hyperstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system.

Sleep Stage 1 (NREM)

Falling asleep, EEG is a mix of alpha and theta waves.

universal emotions

Fear Anger Happiness Surprise Joy Disgust Sadness

Problem solving approach to stress management

Find solutions, obtain help, stress prevention plan, etc.

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center.

IQ calculation

IQ = mental age/chronological age*100

secondary appraisal

If the threat is determined to be stressful, the individual next judges whether he or she has the resources to cope with the stress.

LSD effects

Increased HR/BP, pupil dilation, sweating and increased body temperature Causes HALLUCINATIONS

Alcohol effects

Increases the activity of GABA receptor Logical reasoning and motor skills effected Inability to recognize consequences of actions

primary appraisal

Initial evaluation of the potential threat. It is suggested that we judge the potential threat to be either: irrelevant (unimportant), benign-positive (good), or stressful (bad).

primary drives

Involve physiological needs for survival Ex: food, water, sex

Hallucinogens

LSD, peyote, mushrooms

Nativist theory of language development

Language is an innate biological instinct, and everyone has a neural cognitive system allowing for learning of syntax and grammar. Everyone has the language acquisition device (LAD)

linguistic intelligence

Linguistic intelligence is the ability to learn languages and to use one's skill in using language effectively to accomplish specific goals. Individuals high in linguistic intelligence are often writers, poets, and lawyers.

logical-mathematical intelligence

Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to analyze problems logically. It includes skill at completing mathematical operations and solving mathematical problems as well as the ability to investigate hypotheses scientifically. Those high in logical-mathematical intelligence tend to be logical thinkers with high deductive reasoning skills.

Intelligence follows a ____________ distribution

NORMAL

naturalist intelligence

Naturalist intelligence refers to an individual's ability to recognize, categorize, and draw upon certain features of the environment.

distress

Negative stress from negative/unpleasant aspects of life (distress; e.g., poor performance in school, losing your job, divorce).

Latency Stage (6-puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

pain killers

Opiates and opioids

opponent-process theory

Opponent-process theory is centered on homeostatic principles. Whenever we take some substance this creates a physiological and psychological state that pushes us away from the norm. For example, a drug like heroin can produce a sense of euphoria along with potent analgesia, antitussive, and anti-diarrheal properties. If we use heroin routinely, then the body "learns" to expect heroin to come on board. In an effort to maintain homeostasis, the body then mounts an opponent process which will create symptoms that are in the opposite direction of the heroin itself. Over time, this opponent process will onset earlier and earlier and will grow stronger and stronger until at some point the effects of the drugs are completely offset. We often describe such an experience as tolerance. In order to achieve the positive effects, we would need to take larger and larger doses of the drug. If we ever skipped the drug, we'd experience withdrawal from the drug. Now the drug free state would be marked by dysphoria, increased sensitivity to pain, coughing, and diarrhea. Some users would then continue to use the drug to avoid the negative symptoms associated with withdrawal.

behavior influences attitude

Our behavior can change our attitudes significantly. People tend to have a positive attitude toward behaviors they exhibit themselves, or toward things in which they personally participate. Clearly, the behavior of others impacts our attitudes about them.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

People are more likely to agree to a larger or more difficult request if they first agree to a smaller request. In this case, the behavior of the person making the request changes the attitude of the person being asked to do something. An example of this is when a friend asks to borrow a small amount of money, then later asks to borrow a larger amount

dissonance theory of attitude change

People change their attitudes because they feel cognitive dissonance, as a method to reduce that discomfort.

source

Person or source delivering the message. Attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness = Increased likelihood of persuading target. Credibility = Strong positive correlation with successful target persuasion.

target

Person receiving/processing the message. Higher intelligence = Less likely to be persuaded by shallow or one-side messages, more likely to respond to reason and logic. Moderate self-esteem = Most likely to be persuaded. High/Low self-esteem = Less likely to be persuaded. Mood and mind-frame of the target alters the likelihood of persuading them.

paradoxical sleep

Phrase used to describe the ironic fact that during REM sleep alertness, heart rate, breathing, and EEG patterns are nearly that of wakefulness, and yet one's muscles are paralyzed.

Response to stressors

Physiological: Initial response = Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. Chronic stress: ulcers, decreased immune response, increased risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, etc. Emotional: Stress -> negative moods and emotions (fear, anger, moodiness, irritability, etc.) Behavioral: Stress -> negative behavior (increased substance abuse, social withdrawal, aggression, mental health problems).

Eustress

Positive stress from positive/pleasant aspects of life (eustress; e.g., graduating, getting married, landing a new job)

Physiological effects of chronic sleep deprivation

Positively correlated with decreased cognitive functioning, depression, high blood sugar and multiple chronic diseases including: heart disease, high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics refers to the ability to competently use language appropriately in any given social context

mental set

Predetermined mental framework for approaching a problem; a tendency to rely on approaches and solutions that have worked in the past. Mental sets can lead to rigid thinking and a lack of cognitive flexibility. For example, let's imagine that your vacuum cleaner has stopped working. When it has stopped working in the past, a broken belt was the culprit. Since past experience has taught you that the belt is a common issue, you replace the belt again, but this time the vacuum continues to malfunction. You ask a friend to come to take a look at the vacuum, and he discovers that one of the hose attachments was not connected, causing the vacuum to lose suction. Because of your mental set, you failed to notice a fairly obvious solution to the problem.

limbic system

Region of the brain most directly tied to the emotion

Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.

Social factors of attitude change

Social norms can either direct or inhibit attitude change because people generally seek to align themselves with socially acceptable attitudes and behavior. If an attitude change requires rejecting social norms, it will be more difficult to achieve. The tendency of individuals in a group to avoid conflict and seek harmony (i.e., Groupthink; discussed in the Sociology chapters) may influence them to change an attitude or behavior they otherwise would not. Social roles are an important factor because they lend credibility, or a lack thereof, to the person doing the persuasion. For example, in a culture that upholds patriarchy, fathers may have strong influence over their children, while in a culture that values feminism, fathers may have less influence.

Biological and sociocultural motivators

Some motivations are self-explanatory, but are the root of many behaviors we exhibit on a regular basis. o Hunger o Sex Drive o Substance Addiction

postconventional morality

Stage V Social contract: reasoning focused on individual rights (everyone has a right to live; businesses have a right to profit) Stage VI Universal Human ethics: decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles (it is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom)

3 components of emotion

Subjective Experience (a.k.a., Cognitive Response) = The subjective interpretation of the mood or feeling experienced by the individual. Physiological Response = Physiological changes in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and skin temperature observed in the individual experiencing the emotion. Behavioral Response = Facial expressions or body language that accompany the expression of emotion.

self-perception theory

Suggests that actions influence attitudes because people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior. Ex: What does that have to do with the scenario above? When we lie to someone else, we sometimes begin to believe our own lies. We look at our own behavior - in this case the lie - and make an inference. So, in the example above, lying about your feelings could cause you to believe your own lie! You are using your behavior to figure out how you feel about something. You might be surprised at how often this happens. Let's say, for example, that you are a fan of classical music. According to self-perception theory, you didn't decide that you like classical music because you think it's the best type of music or because listening to it makes you feel good. You decided that you like classical music based on the fact that you listen to it a lot. Thus, we learn about ourselves and form self-judgments the same way we learn about and judge others - by observation.

ERG theory of motivation

The ERG theory essentially distills Maslow's needs into three different categories: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs. The existence needs combine Maslow's physiological and safety needs into one category. Relatedness needs combine portions of Maslow's love/belonging needs and esteem needs. Growth needs combine portions of Maslow's esteem needs and self-actualization needs. While these two approaches are very similar, one striking difference is that ERG theory presents these needs in an ordinal thought an individual would need to satisfy lower level needs before moving on to higher needs, this is not the case in ERG theory because an individual can be motivated by needs from each category simultaneously. Existence" needs concern our basic material requirements for living. These include what Maslow categorized as physiological needs (such as air, food, water, and shelter) and safety-related needs (such as health, secure employment, and property). "Relatedness" needs have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships. These needs are based in social interactions with others and align with Maslow's levels of love/belonging-related needs (such as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy) and esteem-related needs (gaining the respect of others). Finally, "growth" needs describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs align with the other portion of Maslow's esteem-related needs (self-esteem, self-confidence, and achievement) and self-actualization needs (such as morality, creativity, problem-solving, and discovery).

Elaboration-Likelihood Model of Attitude Change

The Elaboration-Likelihood model is a theory to explain how attitudes are formed and changed and is often discussed in the context of persuading someone to change their attitudes about a given situation. This particular model describes two different routes by which someone can be persuaded: the central route and the peripheral route. The CENTRAL ROUTE involves thoughtful consideration of information that is being presented. While the central route is more likely to result in lasting change in attitude, the person who is being persuaded must have an open-mind about the relevant issues and be interested enough to really think about the information that is being presented. The PERIPHERAL ROUTE, on the other hand, can be used when the person who is being persuaded has very little interest in the topic at hand. Here, the person is more affected by their early impressions of the person that is trying to persuade them and their own moods. The peripheral route can result in attitude change, but generally, such changes are much shorter-lived than those accomplished via the central route.

Message

The actual words, images, or other information presented to the target. Balance (presentation of both sides of an issue) = Increased likelihood of persuasion.

Cognitive routes

The nature of the approach to persuasion. Main Route = Presentation of data/information to target and asking them to change their mind after evaluating the information. Peripheral Route = Suggesting the target ignore data/information and decide based upon the reliability of the source (Celebrity endorsements utilize this approach).

reticular formation

The reticular formation of the brain stem stimulates the prefrontal cortex to maintain alertness. Loss of this function = Coma.

self-efficacy

The strength of a person's belief in their own abilities. Different from other" self-terms" because it is a self-evaluation of one's ability: "I am confident I can accomplish anything." "I usually fail." Answers the question: "What am I capable of doing?" THINK: MY ABILITY

Genital Stage (puberty on)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.

identity

Those descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that make a person unique or different relative to others, especially in relation to, or within, social contexts. Identity = Self-identity + Group Identities (e.g., national identity, racial identity, cultural identity) Different from other "self-terms" because it is how I am defined by myself, by others, AND in various situations: "I am a leader. I am a pre-med student. I am a native Pacific Islander." Answers the questions: "Who am I?"; "Who am I in various social roles or settings?" THINK: WHO I AM

self-identity

Those descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that people use to define themselves. Different from other "self-terms" because it is how I define myself: "I am a fast runner. I am a future doctor." Answers the question: "Who do I think that I am?" THINK:MY IDEA OF WHO I AM

Sleep Stage 3 (NREM)

Transitional, EEG is mostly theta waves, but delta waves begin to appear.

selective attention

We focus on one aspect of the environment while ignoring all others

arcuate fasciculus

a bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area with Broca's area; damage causes conduction aphasia

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

conduction aphasia

a speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculus

Cannon-Bard Theory

asserted that the physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time. In other words, fear is felt at the exact same time that sympathetic nervous system activation occurs Ex: "I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing... let me out of here"

Wernicke's area

controls language comprehension Damage to the area: These people can speak (or write), but very often what they say is nonsensical.

self-discrepancy theory

holds that we have three selves: 1) actual self: way we see ourselves as we currently are 2) ideal self: person we would like to be 3) ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be - the closer these 3 are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be

septal nuclei

involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction

Barriers to effective problem solving

mental set, functional fixedness, cognitive bias

ideal self

one's perception of whom one should be or would like to be

ought self

our representation of the way others think we should be

cingulate gyrus

plays role in expressing emotions via gestures and resolves mental conflict

Another name for sleepwalking

somnambulism

James-Lange Theory

states that emotions arise from physiological arousal. In other words, we only experience fear because of the activation of the sympathetic nervous system upon encountering a threatening stimulus Ex: " I must be angry because my skin is hot and my BP is high"

secondary drives

take on their motivating force because they have been associated with and/or provide access to the basic needs listed above (e.g. money, social status, and fame).

actual self

the way we see ourselves as we currently are

Approaches to problem solving

trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, intuition, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning

pre-conventional morality

typical preadolescent thinking Stage I Obedience: concerned with avoiding punishment (If I steal the drug i'l go to jail) Stage II Self-Interest: about gaining rewards (i need to save my wife cuz i need to spend more time with her)

Research indicates that people are most likely to behave in a way that matches their attitudes (i.e., no cognitive dissonance) when a person:

• Holds the attitude as the result of personal experience • Is an expert in the subject • Frequently expresses the attitude • Expects a favorable (i.e., positive) outcome • Has a risk of gaining or losing something based on the outcome

Components of the limbic system

♦ Amygdala (implicit emotional memory) ♦ Thalamus ♦ Hypothalamus ♦ Hippocampus (explicit emotional memory) ♦ Corpus Callosum ♦ Fornix ♦ Septal Nuclei ♦ Cingulate Gyrus

Drug types

1) DEPRESSANTS = Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines 2) STIMULANTS = Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy 3) HALLUCINOGENS = LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) peyote, mushrooms 4) PAIN KILLERS = Opiates, opioids 5) MARIJUANA = Listed separately because it can be categorized as a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen based on its various effects.

Hypnosis

A trance-like state under which a person becomes highly suggestible. It is induced by a therapist and can serve to recall repressed memories, control pain, or stop undesirable behavior (e.g., weight loss, addictions).

inductive reasoning (bottom up processing)

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations. Ex: My dog can play fetch, but my cat cannot. Therefore, dogs are smarter than cats. The general conclusion usually can't be proven true but it can be proven false Ex: I studied 10,000 dogs for fleas and they all had fleas therefore all dogs have fleas The conclusion could be true but it can never be proven only disproven

Marajuana

Active chemical is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) Marijuana acts on the endocannibinoid neurotransmitter system. Users report mild euphoria, sedation, and increased appetite as the most common effects of the drug. Marijuana's abuse potential and potential medical applications are points of controversy among the scientists.

Cognitive changes in late adulthood

Age-Related Physical Changes = the brain literally shrinks in size, AND neural plasticity decreases. Loss of Neurons: The frontal lobe and corpus callosum lose neurons at the fastest rate; the cerebellum eventually loses about 25% of its neurons. Age-Related Memory Changes: Overall memory = Declines; Procedural memory = Stable; Working memory = Significant decline; Semantic memory = Stable

cognitive bias

An error in thinking that leads to inaccuracy, illogical thought, a lack of objectivity, a failure to consider all available options or consequences, or prejudice toward one approach or outcome. Ex: confirmation bias

Meditation

An intentionally altered state of consciousness intended to improve focus or overall well-being. Meditation is a part of many religious beliefs. It is not well defined scientifically, but it has been shown to be associated with a relaxed, slower wave state of arousal reproducible on an EEG.

Eugenics

Any belief, method, or practice designed to improve the genetic makeup of the human race, usually by preventing the birth, reproduction rate, or survival of individuals deemed to have "less-desirable" genes. Today, eugenics is almost universally considered unethical by scientists and non-scientists alike.

Amphetamine effects

Causes increase in dopamine release, norepinephrine and serotonin release which increases arousal Blocks dopamine reuptake Increases HR and BP Hyper vigilance, anxiety, paranoia Euphoria and high levels of energy

Narcolepsy

Chronic neurological disorder caused by autoimmune attack of the neurons that release hypocretin—a hormone that normally regulates sleep-wake cycles. Symptoms include cataplexy (defined below) and inappropriate daytime sleep. Patients experience daytime sleepiness similar to that described by normal adults after 24-48 hours of sleep deprivation. During narcolepsy episodes the individual enters REM sleep after 5 minutes or less, when REM is normally reached after 90-120 minutes.

Cortisol levels when awake vs when asleep

Cortisol levels are higher when a person is awake and alert and lower during sleep.

Sleep Stage 2 (NREM)

Deeper sleep, EEG is theta waves mixed with sleep spindles and K complexes.

Ectsasy

Designer amphetamine Increases HR, BP Causes blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia Euphoria and overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness

Dyssomnias

Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep. Includes insomnia, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy

Problem solving theory of dreaming

Dreams are a way for the mind to solve problems encountered while awake. Some proponents suggest the unconscious dreaming mind is better suited or more capable of solving problems than the awake mind—unrestricted by reality or more sensitive to subtle clues.

Psychoanalytic theory of dreaming (Freud)

Dreams are expressions of unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. Dreams can serve as a virtual form of wish fulfillment.

Drug addiction and reward pathway in the brain

Drug addiction stimulates a dopamine-based reward pathway in the limbic system of the brain

Binet and intelligence

First to develop an intelligence scale, the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, and the concept of mental age vs. chronological age. Binet's purpose was to identify children who needed extra educational help or attention in school. Adapted by a Stanford professor to create the Stanford-Binet IQ Test widely in use today.

availability heuristic

Favoring the most easily recalled or imagined solution as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment. relying on information that comes to mind quickly. Ex: "Are there more words that begin with "r" or that have "r" as their third letter?" To answer this question, you can't help but bring specific words to mind. Words that begin with "r" are easy to think of; words that have "r" as their third letter are harder to think of, so many people answer this question with "words that begin with 'r'" when in fact, that's the wrong answer. After seeing several television programs on shark attacks, you start to think that such incidences are relatively common. When you go on vacation, you refuse to swim in the ocean because you believe the probability of a shark attack is high.

Benzodiazepines and barbituates

GABA receptor agonists If taken with alcohol it can result in death

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner identified eight types of intelligence. His theory challenged the concept that all students learn in the same way, or that numerical measures of intelligence are sufficient. Gardner noted that IQ tests examine only the last two intelligences, and that Western cultures favor the last two over the previous six 1) Visual-Spatial 2) Bodily-Kinesthetic 3) Musical 4) Interpersonal 5) Intrapersonal 6) Naturalistic (added by Gardner later, some texts report only seven intelligences) 7) Linguistic** 8) Logical-Mathematical**

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Giving higher priority to the very first piece of information received and/or framing subsequent information around it. If asked whether the population of Turkey was greater or less than 30 million, you might give one or other answer. If then asked what you thought the actual population was, you would very likely guess somewhere around 30 million, because you have been anchored by the first question

IQ correlations

IQ is positively correlated with the following, and negatively correlated with the opposite, or lack thereof. As usual, intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. ♦ High level of parental expectation ♦ Higher socioeconomic status ♦ Early educational intervention ♦ Adequate nutrition

interpersonal intelligence

Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with an individual's ability understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. Such skills are beneficial in working and getting along with others. Those high in interpersonal intelligence are often educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders, counsellors and social workers.

intrapersonal intelligence

Intrapersonal intelligence refers to the capacity to understand oneself--one's thoughts, feelings, fears, desires, and motivations. It includes the ability to use this knowledge toward successful outcomes. Writers and artists often demonstrate intrapersonal intelligence in their work.

Spearmen theory of intelligence

Introduced the concept of General Intelligence—often called the "g factor" and assigned a lowercase variable, g. Spearman argued that general intelligence was the bedrock intellect from which all other forms of intelligence are developed.

Algorithm

Mathematical formulas or a step-by-step, flowchart-like approach.

Information processing theory of dreaming

Memories and information accumulated during the day are consolidated during sleep. Dreaming is the cerebral cortex associating images or meaning with this consolidation process.

Morphology

Morphemes (the smallest units of language that carry meaning) can be used by combing one or more phonemes together, and morphology involves focusing on how words are formed from combinations of morphemes.

musical intelligence

Musical intelligence includes abilities in composing and performing music and in recognizing and composing musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. It also includes skills in recognizing and appreciating musical patterns. Individuals high in musical intelligence may have talents in vocal and/or instrumental abilities.

Did Galton believe in Nature or Nurture?

NATURE even though his twin studies provided strong evidence for nurture Despite his twin studies providing groundbreaking evidence for nurture, Galton leaned toward a stronger genetic component. In fact, this bias led him to be a strong proponent of eugenics.

functional fixedness

One example of a mental set in which, when solving a problem, we can only visualize using an object or tool in the ways we have seen it used previously. Ex: searching for hours for a screwdriver to repair a knob on a kitchen drawer without recognizing that one of the knives in the drawer could serve a screwdriver's function. Another example of functional fixedness might occur if you failed to recognize that the heel of your shoe would make an excellent hammer in a pinch.

intuition

One's "gut feeling." Often based on previous experience, in which case, it is an example of unconsciously applying a heuristic, or mental set.

Interactionist theory of language development

Proposes that language acquisition occurs through predictable, fixed stages of development. Language development is both biological and social. Results from a child's want to communicate with others

Assimilation

Putting new information into an existing schema

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

REM is an intervallic period of sleep denoted by rapid or random eye movements and a heightened sense of alertness that is greater than any of the sleep stages. It occurs in between the other stages of sleep, with several periods of REM happening throughout the night. The first REM period are shorter and the longest REM period usually occurs in the morning right before waking. Most dreams occur during REM sleep, and it is thought to play a role in learning, memory, and mood.

The most vivid dreams occur in

REM sleep

Visual/Spatial Intelligence

Spatial intelligence refers to an individual's ability to represent the spatial world in his or her own mind. It includes skill at recognizing and using patterns. Architects, urban planners, geographers, cartographers, pilots, and sailors tend to be high in spatial intelligence abilities.

Cataplexy

Sudden, transient periods of muscle weakness or paralysis during which the patient remains fully conscious and aware.

Activation-Synthesis theory of dreaming

The limbic system is randomly active during sleep, mimicking incoming stimuli. Dreams are an attempt by the cerebral cortex to synthesize and interpret this activity in a logical way.

Learning theory of language development

The behaviorist (or learning) theory of language development asserts that we are born without any knowledge of language and that we learn language through classical learning mechanisms (e.g., being reinforced for engaging in linguistic behavior) and through observational learning

melatonin (pineal gland)

The hormone melatonin is released by the pineal gland, at least in part due to decreasing levels of light.

brain wave frequencies

Wave frequency decreases according to: beta (14-40 Hz) > alpha (9-13 Hz) > theta (4-8 Hz) > delta (0.5-3.9 Hz). This is important to note because it does not follow the alphabetic trend implied by the names. • Alpha = Very relaxed, or meditating • Beta = Awake and alert • Theta = Light sleep • Delta = Deep sleep

GABA (neurotransmitter)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA binds a membrane receptor that allows Cl- ions to flow through the axon membrane into the nerve cell

Depressants

alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

Stimulants

cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy

divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time Ex: driving a car and talking on the phone at the same time

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Egocentric

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities Object permanence is the main achievement

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

cocktail party effect

is a specific instance in which we may suddenly shift our attention to something that was previously ignored because of some cue that draws our attention. This gets its name from the experience we have all had where we are at some gathering and we tune out the noise around us to focus on a conversation that we are having with someone nearby. However, if someone says our name, our attention is suddenly shifted to hear what is being said to or about us.

concrete operational stage (6-11)

it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes Ex: Sarah loves to listen to New Age music and faithfully reads her horoscope each day. In her spare time, she enjoys aromatherapy and attending a local spirituality group. Based on the description above, is Sarah more likely to be a school teacher or a holistic healer? Many people would identify her as a holistic healer based on representativeness. She fits in with our existing ideas of how a holistic healer might behave. In reality, it is far more likely that Sarah is actually a school teacher based purely on probability. School teachers are far more common than holistic healers. Consider, for example, how members of a jury might determine a defendant's guilt or innocence. If the accused looks like what the jurors think a criminal should look like, with a menacing presence, scruffy face, and angry eyes, they might be more likely to perceive that individual as guilty of the crime of which he or she is accused.

information processing model (cognition)

likens the thinking process to how a computer works. Thinking: Thinking includes perception of stimuli, encoding that stimuli, and storage of that information for later retrieval. Analysis of Stimuli: As a part of decision-making, stimuli are altered and analyzed by the brain, not just responded to automatically. Situational Modification: Stored decision-making and problem-solving experiences from the past can be extrapolated to solve new problems. Obstacle Evaluation: An individual's skill level in problem-solving does not depend solely on their cognitive development level, but largely on the nature and context of the problem/obstacle.

base rate fallacy

occur when representativeness heuristics are used in error. In these situations, individuals fail to take into account general information when dealing with specific cases. For instance, when asked if an individual who is described as thin with horned-rimmed glasses and wearing a tweed coat with leather patches on the elbows is more likely a server at a restaurant or has a PhD in English history, most people would choose the latter. This occurs despite the fact that basic probability (i.e., a much smaller percentage of the population has a PhD in English history than those who are servers in restaurants) would dictate otherwise.

Schema

patterns of thought that we use to create categories of information or behavior and to understand the relationship that exists among those categories. They prove useful because they allow us to speed up processing of the tremendous amount of information that bombards us each day, but they can also bias the ways in which we deal with new information to create stereotypes about a category of individuals or objects and prevent us from retaining information that doesn't fit the schema

deductive reasoning (top down processing)

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)

belief perseverance

situation in which one's beliefs continue despite the fact that the ground for the beliefs have been discredited For example, a man has met with 4 accidents during a span of a month, and yet, he continues to believe that he is an excellent driver.

overconfidence bias

the bias in which people's subjective confidence in their decision making is greater than their objective accuracy A person who thinks his sense of direction is much better than it actually is. The person could show his overconfidence by going on a long trip without a map and refusing to ask for directions if he gets lost along the way.

Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Phonology

the sound system of a language

Other influences on cognitive development

• CULTURE: Different expectations and traditions; different cultures will reward different behaviors because of different values. • HEREDITY: Inheritance of genetic predispositions; inherited disorders such as Down's Syndrome or Autism. • ENVIRONMENT: different parenting styles can reward different behaviors; exposure to environmental chemicals or toxins; fetal environment (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome) • BIOLOGY: metabolic or other biological conditions can alter cognition or cause brain damage.