psychology 223 Exam 2 Study Guide Early Childhood, Psychological Development, Middle Childhood

The "Authoritarian Parenting Style" is an extremely strict form of parenting that expects a child to adhere to rules and regulations set out by the parents with little or no input or communication from the child

"Parental Responsiveness" and "Parental Demandingness" conclude that: This type of parenting style is a harsh, rigid emotional climate that is low in parental responsiveness (the nurturing aspect of the child) and high in parental demandingness (control over the child). Open communication is generally not an option in this type of parenting style. Authoritarian parents feel they are the boss and their children should conform to the their demands without question. The rules are expected to be adhered to with no room for negotiation. The consequence of breaking a rule is absolute punishment. Yelling and Spanking of younger children is often resorted to for means of discipline and control over their behaviour. High standards of behaviour are expected and extreme value is placed on obedience with an indisputable respect for authority. Generally authoritarian parents are not very emotional or affectionate and are often critical of their children if they fail to meet their expectations.

A "rejected child" is someone who is strongly disliked by his peers.

"Rejected children" are one of the five types of sociometric (or peer) statuses, a system for categorizing a child's social standing based on peer responses to that child. Some peers may like a "rejected child" to an extent, but the child is rarely if ever identified as anyone's best friend.

Determinants of Personality The factors affecting personality can be divided into two classes-

(1) Biological and (2) social the biological factors affecting the development of personality are of three types: (1) Ductless Glands, (2) Physique, and (3) Body Chemistry.

What are the effects of exposure to lead in young children?

-Lead affects virtually every system in the body. -The blood lead level considered to indicate lead poisoning has fallen steadily since the 1970s. -Blood lead levels at least as low as 10 µg/dL are associated with adverse effects * harmful to the developing brain and nervous system* low IQ -coma, convulsions, and even death, decreased stature or growth, decreased hearing & attention -blood lead levels high enough to cause adverse effects

The latency stage is the fourth phase of Sigmund Freud's (1856-1939)

-stage framework of childhood and adolescent psychosexual development. The latency stage is characterized by the following: Begins sometime between the ages of 5 and 7 and endures until puberty.

The important aspects of the environment

1) Physical Environment It includes the influence of climatic conditions of a particular area or country on man and his living. (2) Social Environment The child has his birth in the society. He learns and lives there. Hence, the social environment has an important say in the personality development of the child. (3) Family Environment Family is the cradle of all social virtues. The first environment, the child moves in, is his home. Here the child comes in contact with his parents and other family member his likes, dislikes, stereotypes about people, expectancies of security and emotional responses all are shaped in early childhood. The type of training and early childhood experiences received from the family play an important role in the development of personality. Besides this, economic factors i.e., economic condition of the family and the type of relations between the parents also influence the personality of the child. (4) Cultural Environment The cultural environment refers to certain cultural traditions, ideals, and values etc., which are accepted in a particular society. All these factors leave a permanent impression on the child's personality. (5) School Environment Schools play an important role in molding the personality of the children because a significant part of a child's life is spent in school between the ages of 6 and 20 years. In the school, the teacher substitutes the parents. The school poses new problems to be solved, new taboos to be accepted into the superego and new models for imitation and identification, all of which contribute their share in molding personality In addition to the above there are many other social factors which influence the development of personality of a child which are as follows:- (a) Language Human beings have a distinctive characteristic of communication through language. Language is an important vehicle by which the society is structured and culture of the race transmitted from generation to generation. The child's personality is shaped by the process of interaction through language with other members of his environment. (b) Social Role The child has to play several roles like son, brother student, officer, husband, father, etc., throughout his life at rent stages of his development. Social roles may be described as process by which the co-operative behaviour and communications among the society members are facilitated. (c) Self Concept Self concept influences our personality development in two ways-(1) If other people hold high positive "ergative enhances our self and (2) If others hold may us, it creates feelings of worthlessness and to self-defense or withdrawal from social situation. (d) Identification Identification is an important mechanism by which we try to imitate the physical, social and mental characteristics of our model. It is a very important relationship with others. (e) Inter-personal Relations Inter-personal relations among the members of a society are important means which help in the development of certain social personality characteristics like attraction towards others, concept of friendship, love, sympathy, hostility and also isolation which is a negative orientation. (Ill) Psychological Factors These include our motives, acquired interests, our attitudes, our will and character, our intellectual capacities such as intelligence i.e., the abilities to perceive, to observe, to imagine, to think and to reason These factors determine our reactions in various situations and thus affect our personality, growth and direction. An individual with a considerable amount of will power will be able to make decisions more quickly than others. Thus, we see that hereditary, environmental and psychological factors contribute towards the development of personality.

United States is #10

1. Belgium: 71% A first glance, Belgium appears an example of European modernity: a nation with a rich history and splendid architecture which is the centre of power for the European Union and Parliament. Dig a little deeper, however, and you'll realise that all is not well in the nation so famous for its chocolate. Politically, Belgium is fiercely divided between the French speaking south, which includes the capital Brussels, and the Flemish speaking north, close to Holland. The nation is so divided that successive elections have resulted in collapsed governments with Belgium going a record 535 days without a government as a result. Against this backdrop divorce levels have been climbing, with the decline of the Church cited as a key factor in these figures. Around 32,000 Belgians sign divorce papers every year. Belgian courts will grant a divorce on the grounds of adultery, excesses, physical or mental cruelty and de facto separation. Only about a third of marriages in Belgium actually last, which is a startling fact that undeniably calls the integrity of the 'til-death-do-us-part institution (in Belgium, at least) into question.

Problems with Kohlberg's Methods? criticisms

1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e. they lack ecological validity) 2. The sample is biased 2. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e. they are not real) 3. Poor research design

factors affect the development of personality

1.Heredity It provides the child with certain endowments to? With- Hereditary factors may be summed as constitutional biological and physiological factors: 2. Biological Factors The working of the nervous system, glands and blood chemistry determines our characteristics and habitual modes of behaviour. These factors form the biological basis of our personality. 3. Intelligence Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent can make better adjustment in home, school and society than those who are less intelligent. 4. Sex Differences Sex differences play a vital role in the development of personality of individual. Boys are generally more assertive and vigorous. They prefer adventures. Girls are quieter and more injured by personal, emotional and social problems. 5. Nervous System Development of personality is influenced by the nature of nervous system. (II) Environment The sociologists emphasize that the personality of the individual develops in a social environment. It is in the social environment, that he comes to have moral ideas, social attitudes and interests. This enables him to develop a social 'self which is another term for personality.

mapping

A cognitive map is a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Primary prevention is often classified as an "upstream" approach.

A common explanation of need for primary prevention is the "River Story" highlighting the need to "go upstream" to prevent future problems.

are academic differences between nations greater or less than differences between genders?

A number of structural elements in the human brain differ between males and females. "Structural" refers to actual parts of the brain and the way they are built, including their size and/or mass. Females often have a larger hippocampus, our human memory center. Females also often have a higher density of neural connections into the hippocampus. As a result, girls and women tend to input or absorb more sensorial and emotive information than males do. By "sensorial" we mean information to and from all five senses. If you note your observations over the next months of boys and girls and women and men, you will find that females tend to sense a lot more of what is going on around them throughout the day, and they retain that sensorial information more than men. Additionally, before boys or girls are born, their brains developed with different hemispheric divisions of labor. The right and left hemispheres of the male and female brains are not set up exactly the same way. For instance, females tend to have verbal centers on both sides of the brain, while males tend to have verbal centers on only the left hemisphere. This is a significant difference. Girls tend to use more words when discussing or describing incidence, story, person, object, feeling, or place. Males not only have fewer verbal centers in general but also, often, have less connectivity between their word centers and their memories or feelings. When it comes to discussing feelings and emotions and senses together, girls tend to have an advantage, and they tend to have more interest in talking about these things.

If this skill is successfully achieved, it leads to an ability that contributes to lifelong well-being. Failing to master these critical tasks, however, can result in social and emotional struggles that last a lifetime.

A quick summary of this stage: Psychosocial Conflict: Industry versus Inferiority Major Question: "How can I be good?" Basic Virtue: Competence Important Event(s): School

Causes and Symptoms

ADHD can affect both children and adults. At this time, there is no single explanation for the root cause of ADHD. In some instances it appears that ADHD runs in families, and therefore there may be a genetic cause for ADHD. However, ADHD also may have a strong environmental component. Children tend to learn coping skills from their parents, so if parents model distracted, hyper attention patterns, children are more likely to mimic them. Some theorists have argued that ADHD is a product of an increasingly stressful society and that the incredible academic demands children must meet can result in hyper, distracted behavior. Other studies link ADHD symptoms with diet and other lifestyle choices

Understanding the Oedipus Complex

According to Freud, the boy wishes to possess his mother and replace his father, who the child views as a rival for the mother's affections. The Oedipal complex occurs in the phallic stage of psychosexual development between the ages of three and five. The phallic stage serves as an important point in the formation of sexual identity. The analogous stage for girls is known as the Electra complex in which girls feel desire for their fathers and jealousy of their mothers.

The theory of psychosexual development was proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and described how personality developed over the course of childhood. While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most controversial. So how exactly does this psychosexual theory work? Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas Psychoanalysis Psychology Course Psychology of Children Child Development Stages Freud This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. So what happens during each stage? What if a person fails to progress through a stage completely or favorably? If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

Age Range: 1 to 3 years Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults. However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive. Next: The Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Development

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year Erogenous Zone: Mouth During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting. Next: The Anal Stage of Psychosexual Development

Prosocial Behavior Versus Altruism

Altruism is sometimes seen as a form of prosocial behavior, but some experts suggest that there are actually different concepts. While prosocial behavior is seen as a type of helping behavior that ultimately confers some benefits to the self, altruism is viewed as a pure form of helping motivated purely out of concern for the individual in need. Others argue, however, that reciprocity actually does underlie many examples of altruism or that people engage in such seemingly selfless behaviors for selfish reasons, such as to gain the acclaim of others or to feel good about themselves

Amygdala

Amygdala is the integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation

antisocial Personality Disorder

An adults-only diagnosis, antisocial personality disorder describes individuals who tend to disregard and violate the rights of others around them.

pragmatics of language

An individual may say words clearly and use long, complex sentences with correct grammar, but still have a communication problem - if he or she has not mastered the rules for social language known as pragmatics. Adults may also have difficulty with pragmatics, for example, as a result of a brain injury or stroke.

Other Key Characteristics

Another key development at this stage is the understanding that when something changes in shape or appearance it is still the same, a concept known as conservation. Kids at this stage understand that if you break a candy bar up into smaller pieces it is still the same amount at when the candy was whole. The concrete operational stage is also marked by the disappearance of egocentrism. While children in the preceding stage of development (the preoperational stage) struggle to take the perspective of others, kids in the concrete stage are able to think about things the way that others see them. In Piaget's Three-Mountain Task, for example, children in the concrete operational stage can describe how a mountain scene would look to an observer seated opposite them

aptitude test

As you probably know, aptitude refers to a person's capacity to learn. It should come as no surprise then that an aptitude test is a test designed to predict learning capacity for a particular area or particular skills. For example, the SAT is a test designed to predict how well you will perform in college (I won't get into the good and/or bad of this test). It is not designed to measure how will you did in high school (that would be an achievement test) but how capable you are of learning all the new skills necessary to do well in college.

Asperger's Disorder

Asperger's Disorder is a mild sort of autism which can go completely unnoticed. A child with Asperger's will develop normally, both physically and mentally, but will have delayed social and emotional development. They are capable of having intelligent conversations and often have better than average vocabularies. They may be clumsy as children and learning physical tasks like riding a bike or making a bed may be harder than for other kids. A person with Asperger's may not make eye contact and it would be difficult to understand their feelings by their facial expressions. If you had a surprise party for an Asperger's sufferer, you may wonder after the surprise if the expression displayed happiness, surprise, fear, or plain disinterest. The interests of an Asperger's sufferer tend to be narrow and intense. They often become very skilled or knowledgeable about one thing because they get so into it that there's no time for anything else.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has become an increasingly controversial diagnosis because it is most commonly diagnosed in children and stimulant medications are often prescribed to control symptoms. People concerned about the effects of stimulant medication should take heart, because therapy can be highly effective at treating ADHD symptoms, particularly when used in conjunction with short-term medication.

Authoritarian

Authoritarian parenting is a style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness. Parents with an authoritarian style have very high expectations of their children, yet provide very little in the way of feedback and nurturance. Mistakes tend to be punished harshly. When feedback does occur, it is often negative. Yelling and corporal punishment are also commonly seen with the authoritarian style.

Characteristics of the Authoritarian Parenting Style

Authoritarian parents: Have strict rules and expectations. Very demanding, but not responsive. Don't express much warmth or nurturing. Utilize punishments with little or no explanation. Don't give children choices or options.

Authoritative

Authoritative parenting is a style characterized by reasonable demands and high responsiveness. While authoritative parents might have high expectations for their children, these parents also give their kids the resources and support they need to succeed. Parents who exhibit this style listen to their kids and provide love and warmth in addition to limits and fair discipline. The authoritative parenting style is usually identified as the most effective. Kids raised by authoritative parents have strong self-regulations skills, self-confidence and happier attitudes.

Characteristics of the Authoritative Parenting Style

Authoritative parents: Listen to their children Encourage independence Place limits, consequences and expectations on their children's behavior Express warmth and nurturance Allow children to express opinions Encourage children to discuss options Administer fair and consistent discipline

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a range of symptoms that are mostly characterized by impairment in social interactions, communication difficulties, and repetitive behaviors. ASD is typically diagnosed within the first two years of life and is first noticed when the child has difficulty with normal social interactions (like eye contact and communication) and they appear to withdraw from others. It is called a spectrum disorder because the severity and level of impairment in individuals can range from barely present to very severe. The DSM-5 no longer has Asperger's disorder as a separate diagnosis- it is now included as a mild form within the Autism spectrum. There is widespread misconception that vaccines can cause an ASD - there is no scientific evidence to back this up. ASD is considered to be caused by both genetic and environmental factors.

ive categories of what they call "peer statuses." Where does your tween rank?

Average children: Are liked by some peers, disliked by others, but an "average" amount. Popular children: Rarely disliked by peers. Frequently labeled as a "best friend." Neglected children: Not disliked, but rarely labeled as a "best friend." Rejected children: Disliked by most peers. Rarely labeled as a "best friend." Controversial children: Often labeled as a "best friend" AND often disliked

avoiding rejection

Avoiding Rejection Some children with existing and unavoidable personal differences have such impressive social skills that the differences become irrelevant. This, however, is rarely the case.

Early Research on Permissive Parenting

Based on her research with preschool-age children, developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind described three major parenting styles. In later years, researchers would continue to investigate the different styles of parenting and even added a fourth style. Permissive parenting is one of the original parenting styles described by Baumrind. Permissive parenting is sometimes known as indulgent parenting. Parents who exhibit this style make relatively few demands on their children. Because these parents have low expectations for self-control and maturity, they rarely discipline their children. According to Baumrind, permissive parents "are more responsive than they are demanding. They are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation."

Understanding Authoritarian Parenting

Because authoritarian parents expect absolute obedience, children raised in such settings are typically very good at following rules. However, they may lack self-discipline. Unlike children raised by authoritative parents, children raised by authoritarian parents are not encouraged to explore and act independently, so they never really learn how to set their own limits and personal standards. This can ultimately lead to problems when the parental figure is not around to monitor behavior. While developmental experts agree that rules and boundaries are important for children to have, most believe that authoritarian parenting is too punitive and lacks the warmth, unconditional love and nurturance that children need.

Understanding Why Authoritative Parenting Works

Because authoritative parents act as role models and exhibit the same behaviors they expect from their children, kids are more likely to internalize these behaviors. Consistent rules and discipline allow children to know what to expect. Because parents exhibit good emotional understanding and control, children also learn to manage their emotions and learn to understand others as well. Authoritative parents also allow children to act independently, which teaches kids that they are capable of accomplishing things on their own, helping to foster strong self-esteem and self-confidence. This can be contrasted with the authoritarian parenting style, which is characterized by exceedingly high expectations with little warmth and guidance.

Motor Development: Gross motor skills become smoother and more coordinated

Boys usually outperform girls on gross motor skills of fine motor skills during middle and late Improvement childhood Increased myelination of the central nervous system Girls usually outperform boys on fine motor skills

Schools can influence their students' self-esteem through the attitudes they foster toward competition and diversity and their recognition of achievement in academics, sports , and the arts.

By middle childhood, friendships have assumed a pivotal role in a child's life. Studies have shown that school-age youngsters spend more time with their friends than they spend doing homework, watching television, or playing alone. In addition, the amount of time in which they interact with their parents is greatly reduced from when they were younger. At this stage, social acceptance by a child's peer group plays a major role in developing and maintaining self-esteem.

The Effects of the Authoritative Parenting Style

Child development experts generally identify the authoritative parenting style as the "best" approach to parenting. Children raised by authoritative parents tend to be more capable, happy and successful. According to Baumrind, children of authoritative parents: Tend to have a happier dispositions Have good emotional control and regulation Develop good social skills Are self-confident about their abilities to learn new skills

what are the reasons for child obesity?

Children become overweight and obese for a variety of reasons. The most common causes are genetic factors, lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating patterns, or a combination of these factors. Only in rare cases is being overweight caused by a medical condition such as a hormonal problem

Effects of "The Authoritarian Parenting Style"

Children rarely learn to think on their own They feel pressured to conform They often become socially withdrawn May be very angry, resentful and frustrated Can find it hard to deal with their anger May develop a tendency to act out Develop a fear of failure (do to pressure) Often have a low self esteem Develop a resentment of authority

Five Categories of Sociometric Statuses

Many researchers use a five category system of sociometric statuses. These include: Rejected Neglected Average Popular Controversial

The Effects of Permissive Parenting

May use bribery such as toys, gifts and food as a means to get child to behave Children raised by permissive parents: Lack self-discipline Sometimes have poor social skills May be self-involved and demanding May feel insecure due to the lack of boundaries and guidance

How is Popularity Related to School Achievement?

Most research involving peer statuses focused on social outcomes until a classic study was performed with 11 to 13-year-olds in 1995, which found a clear relationship between popularity and achievement. The researchers categorized each student's peer status and then asked teachers and peers what they thought about each student's academic success.

most effective way to stop bullying

Most school programs that address bullying use a multi-faceted approach to the problem. This usually involves counseling of some sort, either by peers, a school counselor, teachers, or the principal. Hand out questionnaires to all students and teachers and discuss if bullying is occurring. Define exactly what constitutes bullying at school. The questionnaire is a wonderful tool that allows the school to see how widespread bullying is and what forms it is taking. It is a good way to start to address the problem. Get the children's parents involved in a bullying program. If parents of the bullies and the victims are not aware of what is going on at school, then the whole bullying program will not be effective. Stopping bullying in school takes teamwork and concentrated effort on everyone's part. Bullying also should be discussed during parent-teacher conferences and PTA meetings. Parental awareness is key. In the classroom setting, all teachers should work with the students on bullying. Oftentimes even the teacher is being bullied in the classroom and a program should be set up that implements teaching about bullying. Children understand modeling behaviors and role-play and acting out bullying situations is a very effective tool. Have students role-play a bullying situation. Rules that involve bullying behaviors should be clearly posted. Schools also could ask local mental health professionals to speak to students about bullying behaviors and how it directly affects the victims. Schools need to make sure there is enough adult supervision at school to lessen and prevent bullying.

Myelination is the process of coating the axon of each neuron with a fatty coating called myelin, which protects the neuron and helps it conduct signals more efficiently.

Myelination begins in the brain stem and cerebellum before birth, but is not completed in the frontal cortex until late in adolescence.

Why is myelination important for thinking and motor skills?

Myelination speeds processing and allows for a faster response time.

When trying to explain development, it is important to consider the relative contribution of both nature and nurture.

Nature refers to the process of biological maturation inheritance and maturation. Nurture refers to the impact of the environment, which involves the process of learning through experiences.

Types of Maltreatment Children Suffer

Neglect 62.8% Physical abuse 16.6% Sexual abuse 9.3% Emotional/psychological abuse 7.1% Medical neglect 2.0% Other 14.3%

Lantane and Darley have suggested that five key things must happen in order for a person to take action. An individual must:

Notice what is happening Interpret the event as an emergency Experience feelings of responsibility Believe that they have the skills to help Make a conscious choice to offer assistance Other factors that can help people overcome the bystander effect including having a personal relationship with the individual in need, having the skills and knowledge to provide assistance, and having empathy for those in need.

Prosocial behavior is any action intended to help others.

One motivation for prosocial behavior is altruism, or the desire to help others with no expectation of reward. In this lesson, we explore prosocial behavior and the elements that social psychologists have identified as predicting it.

children grow up in many different structures of families, and, at different times in their lives, their family structure may change. For young children, the family in which they live is the "normal family. It is when children enter group programs outside of their homes that they discover that there are many kinds of families and that the important adults in those programs may or may not think of the child's family as "normal" or acceptable.

One of the most important tasks for early childhood educators is to treat each child's family with respect and help each child feel proud and strong about their family. It is important to learn about the many structures of families and to realize that different families may have quite different issues, needs, strengths and values. The following terms may help you to think carefully and respectfully about each family. These terms are not exclusive - several terms may apply to any family at the same time. It is important to find out right away which term/s each family uses to name itself, and to use the terms that the family chooses.

A Quick Summary and Review of the Psychosexual Stages

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year) An infant's primary interaction with the world is through the mouth. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. If this need is not met, the child may develop an oral fixation later in life, examples of which include thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail biting and overeating. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years) Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. Toilet training is a primary issue with children and parents. Too much pressure can result in an excessive need for order or cleanliness later in life, while too little pressure from parents can lead to messy or destructive behavior later in life. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) Freud suggested that the primary focus of the id's energy is on the genitals. According to Freud, boy's experience an Oedipal Complex and girl's experience and Electra Complex, or an attraction to the opposite sex parent. To cope with this conflict, children adopt the values and characteristics of the same-sex parent, thus forming the superego. Latent Stage (6 to 11 years) During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. Genital Stage (11 to 18 years) The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During this stage, people develop a strong interest in the opposite. If development has been successful to this point, the individual will continue to develop into a well-balanced person.

the Effects of Authoritarian Parenting

Parenting styles have been associated with a variety of child outcomes including social skills and academic performance. The children of authoritarian parents: Tend to associate obedience and success with love. Some children display more aggressive behavior outside the home. Others may act fearful or overly shy around others. Often have lower self-esteem. Have difficulty in social situations due to a lack of social competence. Children raised by authoritarian parents tend to conform easily, yet may also suffer from depression and anxiety.

Develop-mentalists are concerned about children not spending enough time in what kind of play?

Parents-mom-Building relationships, seizing quality moments of connection, not quantity, research is showing to be most important for both parent and child well-being.

Permissive

Permissive parenting is a type of parenting style characterized by low demands with high responsiveness. Permissive parents tend to be very loving, yet provide few guidelines and rules. These parents do not expect mature behavior from their children and often seem more like a friend than a parental figure. Because there are few rules, expectations and demands, children raised by permissive parents tend to struggle with self-regulation and self-control.

Characteristics of the Permissive Parenting Style

Permissive parents: Have few rules or standards of behavior When there are rules, they are often very inconsistent Are usually very nurturing and loving towards their kids Often seem more like a friend, rather than a parent.

SOCIODRAMATIC PLAY

Piaget (1951), as cited in Christie (1982), classified play into three different categories corresponding to different stages of cognitive development: practice play, which dominates the sensorimotor stage (from birth to approximately 2 years of age); symbolic play, that becomes prominent during the preoperational stage (from age 2 to 7), and games with rules, which comes into prominence during the concrete operational stage (age 7 to 11). Within this system, sociodramatic play falls under the symbolic play.

What Motivates Prosocial Behavior?

Prosocial behavior has long posed a challenge to social scientists seeking to understand why people engage in helping behaviors that are beneficial to others, but costly to the individual performing the action. In some cases, people will even put their own lives at risk in order to help other people, even those that are complete strangers

How can a complete psychological mapping for a person be obtained?

Psychological mapping would facilitate to bridge the gap between what people think you are & what you think of yourself. It also would help in understanding why people behave the way they do to you.

Psychological resilience Resilience is what gives people the psychological strength to cope with stress and calamity.

Psychological resilience is defined as an individual's ability to properly adapt to stress and adversity. Stress and adversity can come in the shape of family or relationship problems, health problems, or workplace and financial worries, among others.

Psychosocial Stages of Development

Psychosocial Stages of Development were developed by Erik Erikson (1902 - 1994), a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst. There are 8 stages spanning birth to old age. Each of the eight stages is marked by a conflict which must be successfully resolved in order to attain a favorable outcome, which he called "virtues." The first stage of development (from birth to 18 months) is Trust vs. Mistrust. At this stage, the child learns to trust that the world is a safe place and that he can rely on his caregivers to provide for his needs, or to mistrust the world because his needs are not met. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Hope. The second stage (18 months to 3 years) is Autonomy vs. Shame. As the child learns to walk and begins to explore his environment, he learns autonomy as he develops more control over his bodily functions and his surroundings, or shame and doubt over his ability. If successfully resolved, the child develops the virtue of Will. The third stage (3 to 5 years) is Initiative vs. Guilt. He learns initiative as he begins to do things for himself, or guilt over making his own choices. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Purpose. The fourth stage (6 to 12 years) is the conflict of Industry vs. Inferiority. As the child goes to school, he begins to compare himself with others and develops a sense of industry as he accomplishes new things, or a feeling of inferiority if he considers himself inadequate as compared to others. If successfully resolved, the child learns the virtue of Competence. The fifth stage (12 to 18 years) corresponds to adolescence, when the child struggles between Identity vs. Role Confusion. The adolescent tries to develop his own sense of identity, but may experience role confusion as he tries to reconcile his own desires with that of others around him. Successful resolution enables the virtue of Fidelity. The sixth stage (18 to 35 years) corresponds to young adulthood. The significant conflict that must be dealt with during this period is Intimacy vs. Isolation as the individual attempts to settle down and start a family. If successfully resolved, he learns Love. The seventh stage (35 to 55 or 65) is that of the conflict between Generativity vs. Stagnation. This corresponds to the midlife crisis, when the adult assess his contributions to society, or becomes self-absorbed and stagnates. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Care. The last stage (65 onwards) is the conflict of Integrity vs. Despair, corresponding to late adulthood, when individuals look back at their accomplishments in life. If successfully resolved, the individual gains Wisdom. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Psychosocial%20Stages%20of%20Development#ixzz42IXd151w

Aggressive rejected children often use physical, verbal and/or social aggression against their peers. Some or all of this aggressive behavior may stem from an initial instance of peer rejection. Unfortunately, though, the aggression itself then sparks continued and prolonged rejection.

Rejected children also tend to act withdrawn, quiet and unhappy. In many cases, such children are socially awkward or "different." Such issues may be the result of a developmental disorder.

Two Types of Rejected Children

Rejected children may be aggressive or withdrawn. In either case, adults must take time to determine whether behaviors related to rejection were the cause of the rejection — or the result.

Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person who they are; it occurs by the constant interaction with others and with the surrounding environment

Research by psychologists over the last several decades has increasingly pointed to hereditary factors being more important

Quality preschool programs in public schools can be especially beneficial for children

Research from Johns Hopkins University concluded that preschool in a school-based setting can help ease a child's transition into first grade. This link between preschool and first grade can set up a path that results in more sustained, positive long-term effects of preschool.

Under what circumstances is quality preschool especially beneficial?

Research has repeatedly demonstrated high quality early childhood programs, including preschool, enhance the social, cognitive, and language=development of children. Children in quality preschool are more likely to be emotionally secure and self-confident, proficient in language use, able to regulate aggressive inclination, and generally do better in school. children who participated had more enthusiasm about school, behaved better, suffered fewer health problems and had greater academic progress than children who were eligible but did not participate. 15 Children in higher per-student spending Head Start programs have significantly larger gains on reading scores and a lower probability of grade retention than do Head Start children in lower spending programs.

advantages of 2 parent homes

Research supports that children who grow up in households with two continuously married parents are less likely to experience a wide range of problems. Children raised in intact married families are more likely to attend college, are physically and emotionally healthier, are less likely to be physically or sexually abused, less likely to use drugs or alcohol and to commit delinquent behaviors, have a decreased risk of divorcing when they get married, are less likely to become pregnant/impregnate someone as a teenager, and are less likely to be raised in poverty.

The Social World Expands Friends and classmates play a role in how children progress through the industry versus inferiority stage.

School and social interaction play an important role during this time of a child's life. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. During the earlier stages, a child's interactions centered primarily on caregivers, family members and others in their immediate household. As the school years begin, the realm of social influence increases dramatically.

Common therapy treatments for ADHD include:

Skills-Based Therapy - Particularly effective with young children, therapists specializing in attention problems may focus on helping children develop specific skills and time management strategies. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) - CBT is extremely helpful for changing unhealthy habits and thinking patterns. Adults with ADHD may find it particularly helpful because CBT helps people reframe and retrain their thought processes. CBT is typically short- lived, with clients attending only a few sessions before they experience marked changes. Traditional Psychotherapy - Traditional talk psychotherapy, which may include discussions of anxiety, analysis of family relationships, and a variety of other topics, may be helpful at improving one's understanding of ADHD and the impact of ADHD on one's life. People experiencing ADHD commonly must cope with other concerns as well, such as family issues or anxiety. Talk-therapy can help alleviate some of these concerns, making it easier for the client to focus on treating their ADHD. Family Therapy - ADHD does not just affect the person with the diagnosis. Parents of children with ADHD must also learn to cope with their child's symptoms and support their child. Family therapy can help an entire family to support the person with ADHD and establish healthy coping skills that minimize stress and power struggles. Finding a qualified therapist can be the first step in coping with ADHD.

Basically, Wirth et al.'s theory says that spatial presence happens in three steps: Players form a representation in their minds of the space or world with which the game is presenting them. Players begin to favor the media-based space (I.e., the game world) as their point of reference for where they "are" (or to put it in psychological gobblety-gook, their "primary ego reference frame") Profit!

So, basically, the process starts with players forming a mental model of the game's make-believe space by looking at various cues (images, movement, sounds, and so forth) as well as assumptions about the world that they may bring to the table. Once that mental model of the game world is created, the player must decide, either consciously or unconsciously, whether she feels like she's in that imagined world or in the real one. Of course, it's worth noting that this isn't necessary a conscious decision with the prefrontal cortex's stamp of approval on it. It can be a subconscious, on the sly, slipped into sideways and entered and exited constantly.

teen's sociometric status is an indicator of how he or she is viewed by their peers. Researchers use sociometric statuses to better understand the behaviors and outcomes of kids who have different types of peer relationships.

Sociometric status is also known as peer status. The results of your teen's sociometric statuses can affect their future in terms of social functioning in both friendships and relationships. Sociometric status may also have a bearing on your teen views themselves.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Summary Chart Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage: Infancy (birth to 18 months) Basic Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust Important Events: Feeding Outcome: Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. Stage: Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Important Events: Toilet Training Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Stage: Preschool (3 to 5 years) Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt Important Events: Exploration Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. Stage: School Age (6 to 11 years) Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority Important Events: School Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Stage: Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion Important Events: Social Relationships Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. Stage: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation Important Events: Relationships Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. Stage: Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation Important Events: Work and Parenthood Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Stage: Maturity(65 to death) Basic Conflict: Ego Integrity vs. Despair Important Events: Reflection on life Outcome: Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

Parents of children with developmental or physical challenges, or for whom language or cultural barriers may be an issue, can help their children prepare for social interaction. Coaching, peer buddies, social skills classes, and other techniques can help children prepare for social engagement in a school setting. Parents can also help their children to avoid rejection by working with them on problem behaviors that could cause problems.

Such behaviors may include thumb sucking, nose picking, blurting, attention grabbing or bragging, interrupting, etc. Other issues to look out for include social unawareness which can result in an insistence upon discussing the same topics over and over again; changing the subject to a favored topic; becoming to physically close to another child, touching other children or oneself, etc.

Which country leads the world in divorce and remarriage?

Surprisingly, the world's highest divorce rates aren't found in the U.S. According to the UN's Demographics and Social Statistics Division which has records of the divorce rate for every country, the country with the highest ratio of divorces is Belgium, with a whopping 71% of marriage to divorce ratio

Other

The 'Other' category listed above includes abandonment, threats to harm the child, congenital drug addiction and other situations that are not counted as specific categories in NCANDS. The percentages here add up to more than 100 percent because some children were victims of more than one type of maltreatment.

Characteristics of the Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

family structure

The traditional family structure in the United States is considered a family support system involving two married individuals providing care and stability for their biological offspring. However, this two-parent, nuclear family has become less prevalent, and alternative family forms have become more common.

Schizoid Personality Disorder

This is a classification used for people who are withdrawn and are not bothered by their lack of social relationships (and they really do lack social relationships). It is common for these people to have inappropriate or flat emotional responses which make them seem cold and/or withdrawn.

concrete operational stage is the third in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

This period spans the time of middle childhood and is characterized by the development of logical thought. While kids at this age become more logical about concrete and specific things, they still struggle with abstract ideas.

Time out

Time-out means time out from positive reinforcement (rewarding experiences). It is a procedure used to decrease undesirable behaviors. The main principle of this procedure is to ensure that the individual in time-out is not able to receive any reinforcement for a particular period of time.

Stick to a reasonable length for time outs. Time outs of "moderate length" are more effective than shorter ones and may be as effective as longer ones. A general recommendation for time outs is one minute per year of age. However, some research suggests that 4 - 5 minute time outs are enough regardless of a child's age. But don't just rely on a timer. Waiting to release a child from time out until they are quiet and calm (even if the timer went off) is more effective in reducing disruptive behavior than allowing a child to leave when they are still kicking and screaming. Be consistent. Pick a few behaviors to target and give the child time out every time they engage in one of those behaviors. Giving a time out only sometimes for the same misbehavior confuses children and makes learning the rules really hard. Always follow through. Children should not be allowed to escape time out by agreeing to obey after you have told them to go to time out. This reinforces the inappropriate behavior. Once you've stated a time out will happen, it happens. Make it known who is in charge. And that's you. Evidence suggests that a time out is significantly less effective when a child determines when the punishment ends — when you are ready to leave — compared to when an adult determines when the time out is over — when I say it's okay. If your child leaves time out before you say it is OK, you need to return them quickly to time out (without talking to them) or provide a back-up consequence, such as no TV until they finish the time out. Get the behavior right in the end. Kids end up in time out for doing something wrong or not doing what they're told. Don't let them off the hook. When the time out is complete, return to the scene of the crime — now go back and pick up your toys. If you don't make closure, the same incident is more likely to be repeated.

Time-outs work best when they are part of a parenting style that focuses on affection and rewards. A high ratio of positive to negative feedback by parents provides a contrast that makes time outs most effective. Time out should be served in a boring environment. The effectiveness of the time out is impacted by the amount of activity and interest available to a child. The more stuff there is — TV, computer, cell phone, toys, even a coloring book and crayons — the less effective the time out. Use one warning only Stick to a reasonable length for time outs. Time outs of "moderate length" are more effective than shorter ones and may be as effective as longer ones. A general recommendation for time outs is one minute per year of age. However, some research suggests that 4 - 5 minute time outs are enough regardless of a child's age.

Other researchers have also pointed to a concept they call "involvement" which is a media user's desire to act in the make-believe world, to draw parallels between it and his life, and to effect changes in it according to their own design.

To me, this seems like an overly fancy way of saying "some people like to role-play" which leads directly to greater immersion.

Symptoms of ADHD may include the following

Trouble listening Difficulty sitting still for long periods of time Easily distracted Extremely hyper behavior - tends to be always moving Tendency to make careless mistakes Procrastination Difficulty establishing healthy study skills or work habits Trouble with time management Easily bored and may need constant stimulation

Pragmatics involve three major communication skills:

Using language for different purposes, such as greeting (e.g., hello, goodbye) informing (e.g., I'm going to get a cookie) demanding (e.g., Give me a cookie) promising (e.g., I'm going to get you a cookie) requesting (e.g., I would like a cookie, please)

Major Output Pathways of the Amygdala

Ventral amygdalofugal pathway Stria terminalis Directly to the hippocampus Directly to the entorhinal cortex Directly to the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky developed the theory of the Zone of proximal development (ZPD) The distance between where a learner is at developmentally on their own & where a learner could be with the help of a more knowledgeable other. A more knowledgeable other can be an adult or a peer, helping a learner in this way is to scaffold their learning. Scaffolding occurs through the process of internalization... mediated by language and though (see youtube).

Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences

We all experience moments when our emotions control our actions. When this happens, we often regret the things we say or do and wish we had been able to keep our emotions in check. There are techniques—like meditation—that can allow you to do just that, along with various other benefits, like mood improvement and increased compassion and empathy.

occur in relation to the violence: Primary Prevention: Activities that take place before sexual violence has occurred to prevent initial perpetration or victimization. Primary Prevention efforts are guided by theory, strategy, and evaluation. Secondary Prevention: Immediate responses after the sexual violence has occurred to deal with the short-term consequences of violence. Tertiary Prevention: Long-term responses after sexual violence have occurred to deal with the lasting consequences of violence and sex offender treatment interventions.

When all three types (primary, secondary, and tertiary) are used together, they create a comprehensive response to sexual violence.

While all people exhibit these symptoms from time to time, ADHD is differentiated from typical difficulties in attention by a matter of degree.

While most people can concentrate on tasks by simply resolving to do so, people with ADHD often feel that they truly cannot concentrate, rather than that they are choosing not to concentrate.

What seems to me matter most is how your teen feels about their own social success. Teens who are comfortable with where they fit in socially seem to do better at developing positive interpersonal skills. The reason for this may be that your teen's self-efficacy, or expectations about how they will be treated, shapes emotional and behavioral outcomes.

While sociometric status matters greatly for social functioning in teens, if your teen puts little importance on peer acceptance, they may be better at adjusting in different social situations, and ultimately enjoy established relationships better than teens who place a high importance on social acceptance. There's a balancing act between raising a teen to be resilient socially and also have self-acceptance. If you teach your teen to put less importance on what others think, you will equip them with the tools to be successful socially well into adulthood.

Forming Friendships in Middle Childhood

With this growing social world comes the introduction of friendship. Friendships become increasingly important throughout the middle school years. While kids obviously skill depend upon their parents and enjoy spending time with siblings, they also become more interested in building relationships with other people outside the family unit. Learning how to make and maintain friendships is an important part of the developmental process during this time. Few things can make a parent's heart ache more than to watch your child struggle to find friends or grapple with social rejection or even bullying behaviors from other kids. Fortunately, there are things that parents can do to ensure that their child is gaining the social competence that they need to succeed in school and later in life. During the earliest years of childhood, kids tend not to put a lot of thought into choosing or making friends. In most cases, their choice of playmates during these early years is mostly a matter of proximity. The other kids are in the same place at the same time. As any parent or teacher can attest, conflicts are very common during early childhood since younger kids tend to lack the social skills such as sharing, listening, patience, and cooperation. As kids move enter the school years, they become much more selective about who they choose as friends. Just as kids compare themselves to others, they also start making judgments about other children. Surprisingly, however, researchers have found that kids tend to be slow to make negative judgments about other kids. While adults are often quick to point out that "kids can be cruel," most children have generally positive perceptions about their classmates. Kids do, however, start to take note of the characteristics of other kids and make decisions about which children they would like to be friends with. Some kids may gravitate towards one another because they share an interest in the same activities such as sports or video games. Other kids might be drawn to certain friends based on how outgoing they are, how they dress, or cooperative they are in groups. During this age, kids tend to select friends who are kind and accommodating, and somewhat outgoing. They tend to avoid children who are either too shy or too aggressive. While parents might not have as much say over who their child befriends as they did when they were younger, there are still things that adults can do to guide kids towards friendships that are happy and healthy. Parents can start by encouraging their child to talk to other kids, but avoid being pushy. If a child seems interested in only playing with one best friend, parents might consider coaxing the child into hanging out with other children as well. School is a great place to make friends, but participating in activities outside of school such as playing softball or taking art classes provide further opportunities for developing positive social relationships. Healthy friendships are marked by cooperation, kindness, trust, and mutual respect. So what should parents do if their child seems to be in an unhealthy friendship? Remembering that all friendships have their ups and downs can be helpful. The occasional conflicts or arguments are not necessarily a sign that the relationship is destructive or unhealthy. If, however, the friendship becomes a source of stress or anxiety, then it's time to take action. Parents should start by talking to their child and encouraging him to share his feelings with the friend. Adults should also help children understand the importance of walking away from the situation, especially if the friend is being physically or emotionally hurtful. Finally, parents and other adults can try to establish some distance between the child and the friend. For example, a teacher might choose to seat kids who are having conflicts apart from each other.

What are the characteristics of the Pre-operational Stage? ecocentric,centration, egocentrism

a child will react to all similar objects as though they are identical . At this time all women are 'Mummy' and all men 'Daddy'. While at this level a child's thought is transductive. This means the child will make inferences from one specific to another . This leads to a child looking at the moon and reasoning; 'My ball is round, that thing there is round; therefore that thing is a ball' .

how is self esteem affected as school children get older

affected by the physical and hormonal changes they experience, especially during puberty

How do eating habits change in early childhood compared to the first two years?

appetites decline because their growth has slowed. unpredictable, eat too much of the wrong food,gain weight (overfeed)

guided participation

as the pro- cess teachers use to help children as they learn to communicate with and join in activities with other children.

A significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus upon development during childhood,

as this is the period during an individual's lifespan when the most change occurs.

In cases of child maltreatment who are, in general, the perpetrators?

child abuse and neglect are most often the child's own parents.

Cognitive Development

emory Improves One sign of cognitive development during the tween years is an improvement in long-term memory, or the ability to store factual and personal information for longer than a few minutes. Tweens' long-term memory improves due to expertise and strategies. Expertise means having a deep set of knowledge in one topic. For instance, your child might be an expert on a particular video games, Harry Potter, or Seventeen magazine. That expertise enables him to remember even more information on that topic. Tweens also use memory strategies better than younger children do. For example, tweens use mental imagery - like visually imagining objects they need to remember to bring to school - and often link new information to their personal experiences. Both of these strategies help them remember more information for longer periods of time.

Emotional regulation is a complex process that involves initiating, inhibiting, or modulating one's state or behavior in a given situation - for example the subjective experience (feelings), cognitive responses (thoughts),

emotion-related physiological responses (for example heart rate or hormonal activity), and

Learn More About Sigmund Freud

explore the following articles and resources for more information: Sigmund Freud: His Remarkable Life, Theories, and Legacy 10 Things You Might Not Know About Sigmund Freud A Timeline of Freud's Life Some of Sigmund Freud's Greatest Quotes Freud's Three Levels of Mind The Id, Ego, and Superego Sigmund Freud's Views of Woman What Sigmund Freud Thought About Religion 10 Signs You Might Be the Next Sigmund Freud

Stimulation of the amygdala causes intense emotion, such as aggression or fear.

f the brain is turned upside down the end of the structure continuous with the hippocampus is called the uncus. If you peel away uncus you will expose the amygdala which abuts the anterior of the hippocampus. Just like with the hippocampus, major pathways communicate bidirectionally and contain both efferent and afferent fibers.

Industry versus inferiority

fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of six and eleven. According to Erikson's stage theory, people progress through a series of stages as they develop and grow.

children's play time

has declined, but how this lack of play affects emotional development, leading to the rise of anxiety, depression, and problems of attention and self control.

zone of proximal

he zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept introduced, yet not fully developed, by Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) during the last ten years of his life.

Understanding Permissive Parenting

in a recent study, permissive parenting was linked to underage alcohol use; teens with permissive parents were three times more likely to engage in heavy drinking. Researchers also suggest that permissive parenting is linked to other risky behaviors such as drug use and other forms of misconduct. Because permissive parenting involves a lack of demands and expectations, children raised by parents with this style tend to grow up without a strong sense of self-discipline. They may be more unruly in school due to the lack of boundaries in the home, and may be less academically motivated than many of their peers. Since these parents have few requirements for mature behavior, children may lack skills in social settings. While they may be good at interpersonal communication, they lack other important skills such as sharing.

Overregularization

is a part of the language-learning process in which children extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words, such as the use of goed for went, or tooths for teeth. Also known as regularization

Instrumental aggression

is cooler and the hurt delivered to another is not an end in itself but only the means to some other end.

Pre-Operational Piaget's - cognitive development 2nd Stage

is the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This stage begins around age two as children start to talks and last until approximately age seven. During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols. However, Piaget noted that they do not yet understand concrete logic.

Types of Prevention: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary

prevention is "a systematic process that promotes healthy environments and behaviors and reduces the likelihood or frequency of violence against women occurring." Primary prevention strategies, "are carried out before the sexual violence initially occurs, and these strategies focus on stopping conditions that support sexual violence, focus on promoting conditions that inhibit sexual violence, and promote positive behaviors and develop skills that we want others to adopt in order to prevent sexual violence"

Evaluating Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory

reud's theory is still considered controversial today, but imagine how audacious it seemed during the late 1800s and early 1900s. There have been a number of observations and criticisms of Freud's psychosexual theory on a number of grounds, including scientific and feminist critiques: The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development. His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory. Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables. Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

child abuse victims come from "bad" or low-income families,

the truth is that child abuse occurs across the spectrum of socioeconomic conditions and within all types of families

The three goals of developmental psychology are

to describe, explain, and to optimize development (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980

vsoskys Explained complex learning through Guided Participation. Explained things that are taught rather than discovered (reading, writing etc.) a way to "share the thinking load" Helping a novice accomplish a complex task Assistance can be physical or mental & come from adults or peers Scaffolding: where the more knowledgeable other provides some type of structure.

Different than Piaget's image of the individual constructing understanding alone Everything is social Vygotsky saw cognitive development as depending more on interactions with people & tools in the child's world. Tools are real: pens, paper, computers; or Tools are symbols: language, math systems, signs

A Brief History of Authoritative Parenting

During the 1960s, developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind described three different types of parenting styles based on her researcher with preschool-age children. One of the main parenting styles identified by Baumrind is known as the authoritative parenting style. This style of parenting is sometimes referred to as "democratic" and involves a child-centric approach in which parents hold high expectations for their children.

he Oedipal complex is a term used by Sigmund Freud in his theory of psychosexual stages of development to describe a boy's feelings of desire for his mother and jealously and anger towards his father.

Essentially, a boy feels like he is in competition with his father for possession of his mother. He views his father as a rival for her attentions and affections.

The Psychology of Immersion in Video Games Along with "OMGDUDESOAWESOME" one of the words that gamers like to toss around when describing their favorite titles is "immersive."1 But what exactly does that mean? And what makes a game immersive? Ask 5 people and you'll probably get 10 opinions, but psychologists have been studying immersion in various kinds of media for decades so they could probably shed some light on those questions.

Except they don't call it "immersion." Instead, they call it "presence," which, admittedly, isn't as cool. Regardless, researchers have identified several kinds of presence in regards to how we perceive media but it's spatial presence that I think comes closest to what gamers think of as "immersion."

The story generated considerable interest in the bystander effect and in understanding why people help in some situations but not in others, and experts have discovered a number of different situational variables that contribute to (and sometimes interfere with) prosocial behaviors.

First, the more people that are present decreases the amount of personal responsibility people feel in a situation. This is known as the diffusion of responsibility. People also tend to look to others for how to respond in such situations, particularly if the event contains some level of ambiguity. If no one else seems to be reacting, then individuals become less likely to respond as well. Fear of being judged by other members of the group also play a role. People sometimes fear leaping to assistance, only to discover that there help was unwanted or unwarranted. In order to avoid being judged by other bystanders, people simply take no action.

these rules may vary across cultures and within cultures. It is important to understand the rules of your communication partner.

Following rules for conversations and storytelling, such as taking turns in conversation introducing topics of conversation staying on topic rephrasing when misunderstood how to use verbal and nonverbal signals how close to stand to someone when speaking how to use facial expressions and eye contact

Ir-reversibility is a stage in early child development in which a child falsely believes that actions cannot be reversed or undone.

For example, if a three-year-old boy sees someone flatten a ball of play dough, he will not understand that the dough can easily be reformed into a ball. Children typically develop past this stage by age 7.

How Sociometric Status is Measured Sociometric statuses are determined in a variety of ways by different researchers. Most methods involve asking kids what they think of the other children in their class.

For instance, the kids may be asked to nominate the three kids that they like the least and the most in the class. Or kids may be asked to rank every child in the class in terms of likeability. Some researchers directly observe kids' interactions instead of asking the children for their opinions.

middle childhood

From the early childhood years to middle childhood, children undergo dramatic social and emotional changes During middle childhood, kids become more competent and confident. Parents begin to place trust in the child, allowing him to take on daily tasks such as selecting his own clothes and making his own breakfast. Family friendships are still vital, but children are far less clingy at this age. usually go to school calmly and without much drama. During the day, children interact successfully with peers as well as listen to the teacher and follows directions. While cognitive growth also plays an important role in this progression, a great deal of social and emotional growth also occurs during middle childhood. As children start school, their social world becomes much larger. Where most of their previous social interactions were primarily with family, the introduction of school opens up a whole new world of relationships with other people.

causes of obesity

Global shift in how we eat Western diet of processed food Higher sugar, fat and calories in what we eat Less nutrients Reduced intake of vitamins and minerals

Male brains utilize nearly seven times more gray matter for activity while female brains utilize nearly ten times more white matter. What does this mean?

Gray matter areas of the brain are localized. They are information- and action-processing centers in specific splotches in a specific area of the brain. This can translate to a kind of tunnel vision when they are doing something. Once they are deeply engaged in a task or game, they may not demonstrate much sensitivity to other people or their surroundings. White matter is the networking grid that connects the brain's gray matter and other processing centers with one another. This profound brain-processing difference is probably one reason you may have noticed that girls tend to more quickly transition between tasks than boys do. The gray-white matter difference may explain why, in adulthood, females are great multi-taskers, while men excel in highly task-focused projects.

What Is Resilience?

Have you ever wondered why some people seem to remain calm in the face of disaster while others appear to fall apart? People that can keep their cool have what psychologists call resilience, or an ability to cope with problems and setbacks. Resilient people are able to utilize their skills and strengths to cope and recover from problems and challenges. These problems may include job loss, financial problems, illness, natural disasters, medical emergencies, divorce, or the death of a loved one. Those who lack this resilience may instead become overwhelmed by such experiences. They may dwell on problems and use unhealthy coping mechanisms to deal with life's challenges. Disappointment or failure might drive them to unhealthy, destructive, or even dangerous behaviors. These individuals are slower to recover from setbacks and may experience more psychological distress as a result. Resilience does not eliminate stress or erase life's difficulties.

The Many Kinds of Family Structures

Immigrant family/traditional : A family where the parents have immigrated to the United States as adults. Their children may or may not be immigrants. Some family members may continue to live in the country of origin, but still be significant figures in the life of the child. • Each of these families brings with them a set of culturally based behaviors for raising their precious children. And each of these families is continually navigating between what made sense in their country of origin, and what is needed in their new country. ECE programs must take special care strengthen the bonds between the child and the family and not set up a "right or wrong" way for things to be done. Sup-porting the child's home language (the child's mother tongue), is as essential for the child's survival, as is supporting the child as an English language learner. While language is the most obvious of the differences for ECE staff to manage, cultural beliefs and behaviors are equally important. Migrant family: A family that moves regularly to places where they have employment. The most common form of migrant family is farm workers who move with the crop seasons. Children may have a relatively stable community of people who move at the same time - or the family may know no one in each new setting. Military families may also lead a migrant life, with frequent relocation, often on short notice. Document what the child does in your program both for new programs and for the families to take with them. Provide pictures that the child can take with them of friends, teachers, activities. Presume it may take longer for the child and the family to settle in to your program and "take root". Nuclear family :A family consisting of a married man & woman and their biological children. This family form is the one most reinforced in the dominant society. The main issue for children is to help them under-stand that their two-parent, heterosexual family is a fine family, and is one kind among many other kinds of families. It is essential that early childhood teachers do not assume that just because a family has a nuclear structure, they do not need support and connection. Single parent family This can be either a father or a mother who is singly responsible for the raising of a child. The child can be by birth or adoption. They may be a single parent by choice or by life circumstances. The other parent may have been part of the family at one time or not at all. Find out what other supports the single parent has in their life, and which other people play a significant role in the child's life. It may be particularly significant for this type of family that the early childhood program build a caring community of parents. Transnational family These families live in more than one country. They may spend part of each year in their country of origin returning to the U.S. on a regular basis. The child may spend time being cared for by different family members in each country. Culture clash may be a very difficult issue for these families as they work to have their children be "at home" in both places. Be sure to find out the words the child uses for their various family members in both countries and what (if any) kinds of group care the child experiences.

Overcoming Rejection To help your child overcome rejection, it is important to understand its causes. Once you fully understand -- through your child's reports, teacher conferences, and observation -- what is causing the problem, you can begin to address it.

Important steps will include: helping your child to become aware of and extinguish bothersome behaviors teaching your child how to ask and answer questions, share the floor, and bring up topics of common interest working with your child to determine his strengths and interests, and then building on those strengths through engagement in afterschool or community programs. Related terms: average child, controversial children, popular children, neglected child, sociometric status

autism, ADHD, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, social anxiety, or depression can all lead to unusual or disturbing behaviors. Differentness may also result from physical issues such as deafness, blindness, cerebral palsy, etc.

In addition, differences in behavior and language use may simply result from a child coming from a culture or ethnicity that is different from that of the majority of children in a particular school.

Inferiority

Inferiority Complex is a term used to describe people who compensate for feelings of inferiority (feeling like they're less than other people, not as good as others, worthless, etc.) by acting ways that make them appear superior. They do this because controlling others may help them feel less personally inadequate. According to Alfred Adler, a feeling of inferiority may be brought about by upbringing as a child (for example, being compared to a sibling), physical and mental limitations, or experiences of social discrimination (for example, having limited opportunities due to race, economic situation, or gender). An Inferiority Complex may cause an individual to overcompensate for his weaknesses. For example, someone who feels inferior because he is shorter than average may become overly concerned with his appearance - he may go on a strict diet or engage in rigorous exercise, hoping that a slimmer body will make him appear taller. If this is taken to the extreme, it becomes a neurosis.

An individual with pragmatic problems may: say inappropriate or unrelated things during conversations tell stories in a disorganized way have little variety in language use

It is not unusual for children to have pragmatic problems in only a few situations. However, if problems in social language use occur often and seem inappropriate considering the child's age, a pragmatic disorder may exist. Pragmatic disorders often coexist with other language problems such as vocabulary development or grammar. Pragmatic problems can lower social acceptance. Peers may avoid having conversations with an individual with a pragmatic disorder.

Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory.

It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.

Considered an important component of emotional health, self-esteem encompasses both self-confidence and self-acceptance.

It is the way individuals perceive themselves and their self-value.

Turning to game traits related to consistency, we have:

Lack of incongruous visual cues in the game world Consistent behavior from things in the game world An unbroken presentation of the game world Interactivity with items in the game world

game Characteristics Leading to Spatial Presence Characteristics of games that facilitate immersion can be grouped into two general categories: those that create a rich mental model of the game environment and those that create consistency between the things in that environment.

Let's take the concept of richness, first. This isn't an exhaustive list, but richness relates to: Multiple channels of sensory information Completeness of sensory information Cognitively demanding environments A strong and interesting narrative, plot, or story

Kohlberg Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He used Piaget's storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg's (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don't have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions. • Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. • Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Children in single-parent families

Location Data Type 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 United States Number 24,297,000 24,718,000 24,725,000 24,647,000 24,689,000 Percent 34% 35% 35% 35% 35%