Psychology

Higher-order conditioning

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus.

US; UR

1. A sudden puff of air in his left eye caused Bill to blink. In terms of classical conditioning, the air puff was a/an _____ and the blink was a/an _____.

c. infant sucking on a nipple

1. Which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at some point in the development of a human being? a. child riding a bike b. teen socializing c. infant sucking on a nipple d. toddler walking

a. generalization

10. When Ibrahim was six years old, he became terrified when the family's parrot flew at him and bit him on the nose. Since then, he's been afraid of all birds. Ibrahim's bird phobia illustrates the classical conditioning process of a. generalization b. extinction c. spontaneous recovery d. discrimnation

b. money

10. Which of the following is not an example of a primary reinforcer? a. food b. money c. water d. sex

d. Observational learning; model

11. Your youngest daughter watches your older daughter mow the lawn. Later, your younger daughter attempts to mow the lawn. According to the principles of _____, your older daughter has acted as a _____. a. vicarious conditioning; guide b. continuous reinforcement; model c. preparedness; guide d. observational learning; model

a. shaping

11. rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is _____. a. shaping b. extinction c. positive reinforcement d. negative reinforcement

b. cognitive map

12. Bri is a new student at a community college. This term, she has classes in a A Wing, C Wing, and D Wing, but not in the B Wing. However, she has to walk through the B Wing all the time to get to her classes. Next term, Bri has a class in the B Wing, and she knows exactly where the room is, which is best explained by a. insight learning b. a cognitive map c. vicarious conditioning d. modeling

b. variable ratio

12. Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which reinforcement schedule? a. fixed ratio b. variable ratio c. fixed interval d. variable interval

a. sneezing

13. Fred's sister just got a cat. Fred is allergic to the cat, and whenever it gets near him, Fred sneezes. Fred's sister put a collar with a bell on the cat, so Fred will know when it is nearby. Soon, whenever Fred hears the bell, even from far away, his nose begins to itch. In this situation, Fred has experienced classical conditioning, where the unconditioned response is the: a. sneezing b. bell c. itchy nose d. cat

b. model

13. The person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is called a _________. a. teacher b. model c. instructor d. coach

d. kicked and threw the doll

14. In Bandura's Bobo doll study, when the children who watched the aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys, they ________. a. ignored the doll b. played nicely with the doll c. played with tinker toys d. kicked and threw the doll

c. fixed ratio

14. Lorraine just got a new puppy, and she wants to train it to go through the flap in the back door. Every third time the puppy goes through the flap, Lorraine give him a doggie treat. Lorraine is using a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement to train the puppy. a. variable interval b. variable ratio c. fixed ratio d. fixed interval

d. counterconditoning

15. Thomas is a 10 year old in treatment for his phobia of dogs. His therapist gives Thomas his favorite candy whenever he can be near a dog without crying. Now Thomas can be in the same room with a dog without being afraid. The most accurate term for Thomas's treatment is: a. systematic desensitization. b. second-order conditioning c. stimulus discrimination d. counter conditioning

c. Albert Bandura

16. Who proposed observational learning? a. Ivan Pavlov b. John Watson c. Albert Bandura d. B. F. Skinner

CS; CR

2. After a large balloon burst loudly and suddenly at her birthday party, Cindy showed a fear of balloons. In terms of the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, balloons are the _____ and her fear is the _____.

c. is found only in humans

2. Learning is best defined as relatively permanent change in behavior that _________. a. is inate b. occurs as a result of experience c. is found only in humans d. occurs by observing others

a. negative reinforcement

3. After getting badly sunburned, the next time Standly heads out for a day at the beach, he slathers on sunscreen. In this case, Stanly's use of sunscreen has likely been acquired by the way of: a. negative reinforcement b. vicarious conditioning c. positive reinforcement d. negative punishment

a. classical conditioning; operant conditioning

3. Two forms of associative learning are _____ and _____. a. classical conditioning; operant conditioning b. classical conditioning; Pavlovian conditioning c. operant conditioning; observational learning d. operant conditioning; learning conditioning

d. classical conditioning

4. In _____ the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior. a. associative learning b. observational learning c. operant conditioning d. classical conditioning

b. the Premack principle

4. Navario is refusing to do his homework because he wants to go out to play. His mother tells him he is not allowed to play until the homework is finished. His mother is using: a. positive punishment b. the principle of shaping c. biological preparedness d. the Premack principle

b. neutral stimulus

5. A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an organism is a(n) ________. a. unconditioned stimulus b. neutral stimulus c. conditioned stimulus d. unconditioned response

B. negative punishment

5. If you license getting suspended for driving too fast makes you less likely ot speed when you get it back, the suspension is an example of: a. positive punishment b. negative punishment c. negative reinforcement d. positive reinforcement

What is Learning

Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors- they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results form experiences. There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others.

Associative Learning

Is a form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning).

Acquisition

Is a period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus to that the neutral stimulus and will begin to elicit the conditioned response.

Skinner and other behaviorist

Learning ______ ____ ____ ______ dismissed the importance of introspection and mental states in favor of basic learning principles and scientific approaches to psychology.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it.

Cognative map

Mental picture of the layout of the environment.

Observational leaning (Modeling)

According to Bandura, leaning can occur by watching others and then modeling what they do or say. This is know as observational learning. There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention, retention, responduction, and motivation. Throught modeling, Bandura has show that children learn many things both good and bad simply by watching their parents, siblings, and others.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding and undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior.

Extinction

Decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is not longer paired with the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus generalization

Demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Form of learning in which the stimulus / experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated.

Primary reinforcer

Has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex).

Secondary reinforcer

Has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips).

Punishment

Implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior.

Reinforcement

Implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior.

Stimulus generalization

In John Watson's famous experiment, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, but he also demonstrated a fear of other furry, white objects. This is an example of:

Unconditioned Stimulus

In Pavloa's classic experiment with dogs, the food was the _____ _____

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, a response eliciting by a conditioned stimulus is called.

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, inborn reaction to an unconditioned stimulus is a(n):

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the initially neutral stimulus electing, a new response after been associated with the unconditioned stimulus is called:

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule

Number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded.

Spontaneous recovery

Return of a previously extinguished conditioned response.

Continuous reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Rewarding behavior only some of the time.

Music by Mozart

Robert had a serious car accident while Mozart was playing on his stereo. Now, every time Robert hears a Mozart song, he feels frightened and panicked. What is the unconditioned stimulus?

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

Set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded.

Neutral stimulus

Stimulus that does not initially elicit a response.

Unconditioned stimulus

Stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (without learning).

Conditioned stimulus

Stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Negative punishment

Taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Observational learning

Type of learning that occurs by watching others.

Instinct

Unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans.

Reflex

Unlearned, automatic response by an organisim to a stimulus in the environment.

Classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior.

Acquisition

o Pavlov was influenced by Darwin and believed that conditioning is the basis of adaptive behaviors o _____: the gradual formation of an association between the CS and US o The critical element in the acquisition of a learned association is time, or immediacy o The CR is stronger when there is a very brief delay between the CS and US *For example scary music begins to play right before a frightening scene in a move - not during or after * Pavlov's dog associated the sound of the bell with the presentation of the food (presentation of food naturally causes salvation) / after conditioning had occurred the dog salivated at the sound of the bell without the presentation of food.

Conditioned Repsonse

response cause by the conditioned stimulus

Shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior.

c. In vicarious learning, a learner learns a behavior form watching others. In operant conditioning, a learner receives a reward for performing a desired behavior.

6. How does operant conditioning differ from vicarious learning? a. In vicarious learning, a learner passively learns to associate a specific stimulus with a reward. In operant conditioning, a learner receives a reward for performing a desired behavior. b. In operant conditioning, a learner learns a behavior from watch others. In vicarious learning, a learner receives a reward for performing a desired behavior. c. In vicarious learning, a learner learns a behavior from watching others. In operant conditioning, a learner receives a reward for performing a desired behavior. d. In operant conditioning, a learner passively learns to associate a specific stimulus with a reward. In vicarious learning, a learner receives a reward for performing a desired behavior.

d. stimulus generalization

6. In Watson and Rayner's experiments, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates ________. a. higher order conditioning b. acquisition c. stimulus discrimination d. stimulus generalization

d. the neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with a conditioned stimulus.

7. Extinction occurs when _____. a. the condition stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. b. the unconditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with a conditioned stimulus. c. the neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. d. the neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with a conditioned stimulus.

a. rewarding behavior anywhere close to the desired behavior at first, and then progressively rewarding behavior closer to the desired behavior.

7. Shaping is: a. rewarding behavior anywhere close to the desired behavior at first, and then progressively rewarding behavior closer to the desired behavior. b. teaching a behavior by modeling it first. c. completely ineffective. d. a way to teach an animal to stop specific behavior

b. conditioned response

8. In Pavlov's work with dogs, the psychic secretions were _____ a. unconditioned responses. b. conditioned responses. c. unconditioned stimuli. d. conditioned stimuli.

a. Classical conditioning trains the learner to do something without thinking about it. Operant conditioning trains the learner to do something in order to receive a reward.

8. What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? a. Classical conditioning trains the learner to do something without thinking about it. Operant conditioning trains the learner to do something in order to receive a reward. b. Operant conditioning trains the learner to do something without thinking about it. Classical conditioning trains the learner to do something inorder to receive a reward. c. In classical conditioning, the learner learns the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for it. In operant conditioning, the learner simply does what someone else did, regardless of whether that person was rewarded or punished for it. d. In operant conditioning, the learner learns the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for it. In classical conditioning, the learner simply does what someone else did, regardless of whether that person was rewarded or punished for it.

d. negative punishment

9. _____ is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a behavior. a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. positive punishment d. negative punishment

Stimulus discrimination

Ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.

Before conditioning

Before conditioning o Neutral stimulus (NS) o Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) or (US) o Unconditioned response (UCR) or (UR) o Conditioned stimulus (CS) o Conditioned response (CR)

Variable interval reinforcement schedule

Behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed.

Law of effect

Behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged.

Fixed interval reinforcement schedule

Behavior that is rewarded after a set amount of time.

Learning

Change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

When the CS is presented just before the US

Classical conditioning is most likely to occur:

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on the based on the work of B.F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated. An animal or human receives a consequence after performing a specific behavior. The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement (positive or negative) decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response. Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward behavior depending on either a set or variable period of time.

Conditioning trials, neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov's Experiments A typical Pavlovian experiment involves: o _______ ______: neutral stimulus AND unconditioned stimulus are paired to produce reflex, e.g. salivation. - _____ ____: anything the animal can see or hear as long as it is NOT associated with the reflex being tested, e.g. ringing bell - _____ _____ (US): a stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning, e.g. food.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov's pioneering work with dogs contributed greatly to what we know about learning. His experiments explored the type of associative learning we know call classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together, and researchers study how a reflexive response to a stimulus can be mapped to a different stimulus - by training an association between the two stimuli. Pavlov's experiments show how stimulus-reponse bonds are formed. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, was greatly influenced by Pavlov's work. He tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant know as Little Albert. His findings suggest that classical conditioning can explain how some fears devleop.

Model

Person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning).

Vicarious punishment

Process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior.

Vicarious reinforcement

Process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior.

a. Negative punishment involves taking away something the learner wants, to discourage him from repeating the behavior. Negative reinforcement entails removing an undesired condition after the learner demonstrates the desired behavior.

What is the difference between negative reinforcement and negative punishment? a. negative punishment involves taking away something the learning wants, to discourage him from repeating the behavior. Negative reinforcement entails removing an undesired condition after the learner demonstrates the desired behavior. b. negative reinforcement rewards the learner for an undesirable behavior, such as offering a child candy to stop screaming. Negative punishment is punishment that is destructive, such as spanking or slapping a child across the face. c. negative reinforcement inadvertently encourages bad behavior; negative punishment discourages bad behavior. d. negative reinforcement involves taking away something the learner wants, to discourage him form repeating the behavior. Negative punishment entails removing an undesired condition after the learner demonstrates the desired behavior.

The crying

When a child hears a loud noise, he cries. The family's dog barks loudly. Each time the child sees the dog, her cries. What is the conditioned response?

Habituation

When we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change.

a. attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

Which is the correct order of steps in the modeling process? a. attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. b. motivation, attention, reproduction, retention. c. attention, motivation, retention, reproduction. d. motivation, attention, retention.

Food

Which stimulus is more likely to become a conditioned stimulus associated with nausea (US):

Extinction

You have trained your dog to bark on command by giving her rawhides when she is successful. However, you quit giving her the raw hides when she barks and you find that eventually she will not bark on command. This is an example of what?

Classical Conditining

_____ _____ 1. The dog is presented with a bowl that contains meat. 2. A tube carries the dog's saliva from the salivary glads to a container. 3. The container is connected to a device that measures the about of saliva.

Extinction

_____ occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears. o Spontaneous recovery *Reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning

Premack's principle

______ _____, or the relativity theory of reinforcement, states that more probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors. Origin and description The Premack principle was derived form a study of Cebus monkeys by Professor David Premack, but it has explanatory and predictive power when applied to humans, and it has been used by therapist practicing applied behavior analysis. Premak's principle suggests that if a person wants to perform a given activity, the person will perform a less desirable activity to get a more desirable activity; that is, activities may themselves be reinforcers. An indivisual will be ore motivated to perform a particual activity if he knows that he will partake in a more desirable activity as a consequence. Stated objectively. If a high-probability behavior (more desirable behaviors) are made contingent upon lower-probability behaviors (less desirable behaviors), then the lower probability behaviors are more likely to occur. More desirable behaviors are those that individuals spend more time doing if permitted; less desirable behaviors are those that individual spend less time doing when free to act. Just as "reward" was commonly used to alter behavior long before "reinforcement" was studied experimentally, the Premack principle has long been informally understood and used in a wide variety of circumstances. An example is a mother who says "You have to finish your vegetable (low frequency) before you can eat any ice cream (high frequency)."

Classical Conditioning

______ ______ Neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that 'naturally' brings about that response.