Psychology chapter 10
What Is the Trait Perspective?
A trait is a relatively stable tendency to behave in a particular way across a variety of situations. Allport-Gordon Allport & his colleague Henry Odbert (1936) began by combing through a dictionary & making a list of words that described people's personal characteristics. From this initial list of 18,000 words, they reduced it to about 200 clusters of related words, which became the original traits in Allport's personality theory (Allport, 1937). Allport's perspective on personality had a good deal in common with those of humanistic psychologists in that he emphasized that the whole human being should be the focus of study. Like humanistic psychologists, he further asserted that behaviorism was seriously mistaken when it explained human behavior as no different from that of rats & pigeons. In addition to being influenced by his humanistic associations, Allport was influenced by Gestalt psychology. The Gestalt perspective contends, "the whole is different from the sum of its parts." Similarly, Allport (1961) argued that personality wasn't simply a collection of traits but that, instead, these traits seamlessly fit together to form a dynamic & unique personality. Cattell-Raymond Cattell (1965, 1986) was one of the first trait theorists to use factor analysis to identify these general traits, which he called source traits. First he collected people's ratings of themselves on many different traits, & then he identified clusters of related traits using factor analysis. Based on this procedure, Cattell concluded that you could understand an individual's personality by identifying the degree to which she or he possessed each of the 16 source traits. To measure these traits, Cattell developed the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), which is widely used for career counseling, marital counseling, & evaluating employees & executives (Cattell, 2001; Tango & Kolodinsk, 2004). He was a pioneer in the use of factor analysis to study personality. He also demonstrated the importance of testing personality traits in applied settings—in business organizations, in schools, in clinical work—& then using that information to better understand the traits. Testing personality theories in applied settings & then refining the theories based on what's learned has become an important part of modern trait approaches to personality. Eysenck-British psychologists Hans Eysenck & Sybil Eysenck (pronounced "EYE-zink") also used factor analysis to describe personality functioning. However, unlike Cattell, the Eysencks believed that personality researchers should rely on other evidence besides the findings of factor analysis when identifying the basic dimensions of personality. Specifically, they believed that researchers should also consider the biological bases of personality. Based on thousands of studies conducted over 5 decades, the Eysencks concluded that there are 3 genetically influenced dimensions of personality: extraversion (which included Cattell's factors of outgoingness & assertiveness), neuroticism (which included Cattell's factors of emotional instability & apprehensiveness), & psychoticism (which included Cattell's factors of tough-mindedness & shrewdness). Trait perspective-A descriptive approach to personality that identifies stable characteristics that people display over time & across situations. Cattell's 16 Basic Personality Traits Reserved <> Outgoing Trusting <> Suspicious Relaxed <> Tense Less intelligent <> More intelligent Stable <> Emotional Assertive <> Humble Happy-go-lucky <> Sober Conscientious <> Expedient Venturesome <> Shy Tender-minded <> Tough-minded Imaginative <> Practical Shrewd <> Forthright Apprehensive <> Placid Experimenting <> Conservative Self-sufficient <> Group-tied Controlled <> Casual
The Five-Factor Model
A trait theory asserting that personality consists of 5 traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, & neuroticism). Openness to experience-People who are particularly open to experience are adventurous—constantly searching out new ways to do things—& they're sensitive & passionate, with a childlike wonder at the world (McCrae, 1994). They can also flout traditional notions of what's appropriate or expected in terms of their behavior or ideas (McCrae & Costa, 1997). As with most of the other dimensions, openness to experience is at the end of the pole that appears more desirable; in fact, however, many qualities of those who are more closed to experience are quite valuable. These individuals tend to be hardworking, loyal, down-to-earth, & proud of their traditional values. They also tend to be more politically conservative. A meta-analysis of 88 studies with over 22,000 participants found that people who scored low on openness to experience held more conservative political beliefs than those individuals who scored high on openness (Jost et al., 2003). Conscientiousness-measure of a person's willingness to conform to others' expectations & follow through on promises & agreements, despite more tempting options that may arise. People who score high on conscientiousness tend to be well organized, dependable, hardworking, & ambitious—whereas those who score low are more likely to be disorganized, undependable, lazy, & easygoing. This dimension is very important in career planning & workplace productivity. Adolescents who are conscientious are much more likely to spend time thinking about & planning their future career options than those who lack conscientiousness (Lounsbury et al., 2005). Similarly, conscientious employees are good workplace citizens, while nonconscientious employees are nonproductive & undermine the organization's health (Howard & Howard, 2000). Extraversion-First identified by Carl Jung & has been included in virtually every personality system proposed in the last 50 years. Extraverts are people who seek out & enjoy others' company. They tend to be confident, energetic, bold, & optimistic, & they handle social situations with ease & grace. Extraverts' social skills, confidence, & take-charge attitude often make them well-suited for leadership positions (Johnson et al., 2004). On the opposite end of this particular personality dimension is the introverted character. Introverts tend to be shy, quiet, & reserved—& it's harder for others to connect with them (Tellegen et al., 1988). Agreeableness-personality dimension that ranges from friendly compliance with others on one end to hostile antagonism on the other. People who score high on agreeableness tend to be good-natured, softhearted, courteous, & sympathetic—whereas those who score low tend to be irritable, ruthless, rude, & tough-minded. Agreeableness is a useful way to obtain popularity, & agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. However, people high in agreeableness may be too dependent on others' approval & thus ill-suited for situations requiring tough or more objective decisions. For instance, scientists, art or literary critics, & judges may be able to perform better if they are less agreeable & more "objective" in their jobs (Graziano et al., 1996). Does being tough-minded vs good-natured affect how much money people earn in their jobs? A series of studies found that people who scored low on agreeableness earned 18% more in their jobs than those who were more agreeable (Judge et al., 2012). Interestingly, the relationship between agreeableness and income was significantly stronger for men than for women. One way to interpret these findings is that behaving counter to your sex's traditional gender role—men being softhearted & sympathetic & women being ruthless & tough-minded—causes more of a salary backlash for men than for women. The fact that being tough-minded is a masculine trait, & the finding that it's associated with higher salaries in our culture, also reflects the greater value our culture places on masculine traits compared to feminine traits. Neuroticism-At the core of neuroticism is negative affect (McCrae & Costa, 1987). This personality dimension, which is sometimes labeled emotional stability, describes how people differ in terms of being anxious, high-strung, insecure, & self-pitying vs relaxed, calm, composed, secure, & content. Neurotics (people low in emotional stability) can either channel their worrying into a kind of compulsive success or let their anxiety lead them into recklessness. The 5-Factor Model & Facets-Openness to Experience-Rich fantasy life, Rich emotional life, Action-oriented, Novel ideas, Eccentric, Idiosyncratic. Conscientiousness-Competent, Orderly, Dutiful, Self-disciplined, Deliberate, Achievement-oriented. Extraversion-Outgoing, Positive emotions, Assertive, Full of energy, Excitement seeking, Warm. Agreeableness-Trusting, Straightforward, Compliant, Modest, Tender-minded, Altruistic. Neuroticism-Anxious, Self-conscious, Depressed, Hostile, Impulsive, Vulnerable.
The Humanistic Perspective
This perspective emphasizes people's innate capacity for personal growth & their ability to consciously make choices. "Third-wave of psychology"
Thematic Apperception Test
What sort of story do you think this picture tells? Why is the TAT referred to as a "projective" test? Murray further proposed that across the stories people told, certain themes would emerge related to important issues in their lives.
The Rorschach Test
What's one of the more serious validity problems with the Rorschach Test? 1 of the more serious validity problems with the Rorschach is that the current scoring system tends to misidentify mentally healthy people as having psychological problems (Daruna, 2004).
Values in Action (VIA) Classification of Virtues
Wisdom & knowledge-cognitive strengths that are related to acquiring & using knowledge. Creativity: Thinking of novel & productive ways to understand & do things. Curiosity: Having an interest in things for their own sake. Open-mindedness: Thinking things through & examining them from all sides. Love of learning: Mastering new skills, topics, & bodies of knowledge. Perspective: Being able to provide wise counsel to others. Courage-emotional strengths that require the exercise of willpower to accomplish goals in the face of opposition. Bravery: Not shrinking from threat, challenge, difficulty, or pain. Persistence: Finishing what you start. Integrity: Speaking the truth and acting in a genuine & sincere manner. Vitality: Approaching life with excitement & energy. Humanity-interpersonal strengths that involve tending to & befriending others. Love: Valuing intimate relationships with others. Kindness: Doing favors & good deeds for others. Social intelligence: Being aware of the motives & feelings of other people & yourself. Justice-civic strengths that underlie healthy community life. Citizenship: Working well as a member of a group or team. Fairness: Treating all people the same according to notions of fairness & justice. Leadership: Encouraging a group of which one is a member to get things done & at the same time maintaining good relations within the group. Temperance-strengths that protect against excess. Forgiveness & mercy: Forgiving those who have done wrong. Humility/Modesty: Letting one's accomplishments speak for themselves. Prudence: Being careful about your choices. Self-regulation: Regulating what you feel & do. Transcendence-strengths that forge connections to the larger universe & provide meaning. Appreciation of beauty & excellence: Noticing & appreciating beauty, excellence, &/or skilled performance in various domains of life. Gratitude: Being aware of & thankful for the good things that happen to you. Hope: Expecting the best in the future & working to achieve it. Humor: Liking to laugh & tease. Spirituality: Having sound beliefs about the higher purpose & meaning of the universe.
What Is Positive Psychology?
A new scientific approach to studying optimal human functioning that asserts that the normal functioning of human beings can't be accounted for in purely negative (or problem-focused) terms. Character strength-A trait that allows optimal functioning in pursuing a virtue. (Christopher Peterson & Martin Seligman) Virtue-A virtue is a core human characteristic valued, worldwide, in moral philosophies & religions. Values in Action (VIA) Classification-A positive psychology classification system of 24 universal character strengths that defines what's best about people.
What Is the Social-Cognitive Perspective?
A psychological perspective that views personality as emerging through the process of the person interacting with her or his social environment.
What Is Locus of Control?
According to social cognitive theorist Julian Rotter (1966, 1990), through the process of interacting with our surroundings we develop beliefs about ourselves as controlling, or controlled by, our environment. Internal locus of control-believe that outcomes occur because of their own efforts. Locus of control-The degree to which we expect that outcomes in our lives depend on our own actions & personal characteristics versus the actions of uncontrollable environmental forces. External locus of control-believe that outcomes are outside their own control.
Variations of Psychoanalytic Theory
Adler's individual psychology-Adler's view of personality stressed social factors more than did Freud's theory. For example, concerning family dynamics, he felt that Freud focused much attention on the mother-child-father bonds that he neglected the important influence that siblings can have on personality development. Regarding this, Adler was one of the first theorists to write about how birth order shapes personality, & coined the term sibling rivalry. In 1911, the Freud-Adler relationship ended when Adler proposed his individual psychology, which downplayed the importance of sexual motivation &, instead, asserted that people strive for superiority. By this, Adler meant that children generally feel weak & incompetent compared with adults & older children. In turn, these feelings of inferiority motivate them to acquire new skills & develop their untapped potential. Adler (1929) called this process of striving to overcome feelings of inferiority compensation. However, for some individuals, such striving can lead to overcompensation if the sense of inferiority is excessively strong. Instead of mastering new skills, these people simply seek to obtain outward symbols of status & power, such as money & expensive possessions. By flaunting their success, they try to hide their continuing sense of inferiority. Jung's analytical psychology-Carl Jung (pronounced "Yoong"; 1875-1961), a native of Switzerland Jung (1916) called his approach analytical psychology. Like Adler, Jung de-emphasized the sex motive in his version of psychoanalysis. Instead, he asserted that people are motivated by a desire for psychological growth & wholeness, which he called the need for individuation. Jung's idea that humans are motivated to engage in a quest for personal growth later became the central focus of the humanistic perspective. He agreed with Freud that the unconscious mind has a powerful effect on people's lives. Yet, for Jung, the unconscious was less a reservoir for repressed childhood conflicts & more a reservoir of images from our species' evolutionary past. In studying different cultures & religions, he noticed certain universal images & themes, which were also strikingly similar to the images & themes in his patients' dreams. Although Jung's idea of the collective unconscious has generally been dismissed in mainstream psychology, it has had considerably greater influence in other disciplines, such as anthropology, art, literature, & religious studies (Tacey, 2001). However, one aspect of his personality theory that has been incorporated into mainstream personality theories is the idea that we are born with tendencies to direct our psychological energies either into our inner self or into the outside world (Jung, 1921). Collective unconscious-In Jung's personality theory, the part of the unconscious mind containing inherited memories shared by all human beings. Archetypes-In Jung's personality theory, inherited images that are passed down from our prehistoric ancestors & that reveal themselves as universal symbols in dreams, religion, & art. Archetypes are represented in the religious symbols found throughout the world. Key archetypal figures are mother, father, shadow, wise old person, God, & the hero. Jung also claimed that the feminine & masculine qualities that everyone possesses were represented by the male feminine archetype, anima, and the female masculine archetype, animus. The most important archetype is the self, which Jung described as the ultimate unity of the personality, symbolized in religions by the circle, the cross, & the mandala. Introverts-A person who is preoccupied with his or her inner world & tends to be hesitant & cautious when interacting with people. Extraverts-A person who is focused on the external world & tends to be confident and socially outgoing. Horney's Neo-Freudian perspective-German physician Karen Horney (pronounced "HOR-nigh"; 1885-1952) was the first influential female psychoanalyst. Like Adler, Horney (1945) believed that social factors played a much larger role in personality development than sexual influences. Instead of personality problems being caused by fixation of psychic energy, Horney believed that problems in interpersonal relationships during childhood created anxiety; this anxiety caused later personality problems. Developmental psychologists later expanded on these ideas by studying how parent-child emotional attachments shape children's personalities. Also instrumental in confronting some of Freud's assertions concerning female personality development (Smith, 2007). Freud proposed that gender differences in behavior were due to biological factors, Horney proposed social & cultural explanations. Although conceding that women often felt inferior to men, Horney (1926) claimed that this isn't due to penis envy but is rather because of the sexism that denied women equal opportunities. What women really envied was the social power & privilege that men enjoyed in the larger society.
Principles of the Social-Cognitive Perspective
Albert Bandura. Reciprocal determinism-The social cognitive belief that personality emerges from an ongoing mutual interaction between people's cognitions, their actions, & their environment. Self-efficacy-One of the most important cognitive factors in reciprocal determinism. A person's belief about his or her ability to perform behaviors that should bring about a desired outcome.
MMPI-2 Clinical Scales
Clinical Scales-Hypochondriasis-Abnormal concern with bodily functions & health concerns. Depression-Pessimism, feelings of hopelessness; slowing of action & thought. Hysteria-Unconscious use of mental or physical symptoms to avoid problems. Psychopathic deviation-Disregard for social customs; emotional shallowness. Masculinity/femininity-Interests culturally associated with a particular gender. Paranoia-Suspiciousness, delusions of grandeur or persecution. Psychasthenia-Obsessions, compulsions, fears, guilt, anxiety. Schizophrenia-Bizarre thoughts & perceptions, withdrawal, hallucinations, delusions. Hypomania-Emotional excitement, overactivity, impulsiveness. Social introversion-Shyness, insecurity, disinterest in others. Validity Scales-Can't say-Not answering many items indicates evasiveness. Lie-Repeatedly providing socially desirable responses indicates a desire to create a favorable impression; lying to look good. Frequency-Repeatedly providing answers rarely given by normal people may indicate an attempt to appear mentally disordered; faking to look mentally ill. Correction-A pattern of failing to admit personal problems or shortcomings, indicating defensiveness or lack of self-insight.
Evaluation of the Social-Cognitive Perspective
Complexity Emphasis on cognitions Useful applications Nonrational behavior
Freud's Model of Personality Structure
Conscious mind-According to Freud, the relatively small part of our minds that we are aware of at the moment. Preconscious mind-According to Freud, those mental processes that aren't currently conscious but could become so at any moment. Unconscious mind-According to Freud, the thoughts, desires, feelings, and memories that aren't consciously available to us but that nonetheless shape our everyday behavior.
An Overall Evaluation of Freud's Legacy
Contributions-Freud's impact on psychology can't be dismissed. Indeed, his influence extends into other disciplines that study humans & their behavior, such as anthropology, sociology, literature, & history. Indeed, psychoanalytic theory today may have more influence outside of psychology than within it. For example, a content analysis of 150 highly ranked US colleges & universities found that psychoanalytic ideas are represented somewhere in the curricula of most schools, but significantly more courses feature psychoanalytic ideas outside psychology departments than within them (Redmond & Shulman, 2008). Despite the inability to test certain portions of Freud's personality theory, & despite the lack of evidence for other portions that have been scientifically tested, a new scientific movement has developed in recent years to bridge the gap between Freud's theory & science. Employing brain imaging techniques & other neuroscientific methods, researchers in the field of neuropsychoanalysis claim that at least the following four general ideas concerning personality have received empirical support (Olds, 2012; Panksepp & Solms, 2012): 1. Unconscious processes shape human behavior. 2. Childhood experiences shape adult personality. 3. Learning to regulate impulses is critical for healthy development. 4. Some dreams are associated with wish fulfillment. Given these continuing contributions, psychoanalysis still deserves recognition as an important, albeit flawed, perspective on personality. As long as psychoanalysis continues to generate interest among scientists who employ cutting-edge technology to test its theoretical arguments, this perspective on personality will continue to enrich & thereby illuminate our understanding of the human mind. Criticisms-Despite Freud's influence on the social sciences & the larger culture, a major limitation of his theory is that it isn't based on carefully controlled scientific research. Indeed, Freud's entire theory is based on his own self-analysis & a handful of cases from his clinical practice that don't constitute a representative sampling of the human population. As you know from our discussion of scientific methods, a theory's usefulness is difficult to determine if the research sample doesn't represent the population of interest. Further, reexaminations of Freud's case notes suggest that he may have distorted some of his patients' histories so that they conformed to his view of personality (Esterson, 1993). Related to these criticisms is the fact that Freud didn't welcome anyone questioning or challenging his ideas (Gardner, 1993). Such a stance doesn't advance scientific understanding. Another criticism of Freud's theory is that many of its psychological processes—such as the id—can't be observed, much less measured. If aspects of his theory can't be scientifically tested, then of what use are they to the science of psychology? Further, when scientific studies have tested some of Freud's concepts, they have found little evidence to support the existence of the Oedipal/Electra complex, penis envy, or many of Freud's ideas on sexual & aggressive drives (Crews, 1998)
What Shapes Personality? SLIDE 2
Culture-Personality psychology was developed & has flourished in the North American & Western European social climate of individualism. This philosophy of life conceives of people as being unique, independent entities, separate from their social surroundings. In contrast, collectivism emphasizes group needs & desires over those of the individual (Singelis et al., 1995). Individuals who internalize these social norms will develop a personality style that's characteristic of their social group & may be relatively uncommon in other cultures (Ho et al., 2001). Evolutionary processes-According to this viewpoint, because the evolutionary process is the only known creative process capable of producing complex organisms, all theories of human nature, including personality theories, must consider the basic principles of evolution by natural selection. According to evolutionary theory, living organisms struggle to survive, & within each species, a great deal of competition & biological variation occurs among individuals (Darwin, 1859/1988). Those individuals with genetic traits best adapted for survival in their environment will produce more offspring; as a result, their numbers will increase in frequency in the population. As the environment changes, however, other members of the species possessing traits better suited to the new conditions will flourish, a process called natural selection. In this way, the environment selects which genetic traits are passed on to future generations. As natural selection continues & the features best suited for survival change again & again, the result is evolution, a term that refers to the gradual genetic changes that occur in a species over generations. Reproduction is central to natural selection; the essence of the natural selection process is that the characteristics of some individuals allow them to produce more offspring than others.
What Is the Psychoanalytic Perspective?
Freud-The most recognizable person in the field of psychology—Sigmund Freud—wasn't trained as a psychologist. Freud (1856-1939) grew up in Austria, was trained as a physician in Vienna, & aspired to become a university professor. Early in his professional career as a medical doctor, he studied the nervous system in the hope of applying newly discovered principles of physics & chemistry to the functioning of the human mind. In addition to teaching & doing laboratory work, Freud worked with patients (mostly women) who complained about problems with the functioning of their nervous systems. However, he frequently discovered that their symptoms seemed to originate from emotional trauma. Over time, this young Viennese doctor developed the idea that the young science of psychology held answers to many of these perplexing disorders (Freud, 1917/1959). Glove anesthesia-In this condition, the patient has no feeling from the wrists to the tips of the fingers but does have feeling in the forearms. Glove anesthesia isn't consistent with the way the nervous system functions, which suggested to Freud that its cause wasn't physiological but psychological (Freud, 1895/1966). As you will see, this idea revolutionized the study of personality in the early 1900s. Glove anesthesia describes numbness in the entire hand, ending at the wrist. The skin areas served by nerves in the arm are shown in (a). Glove anesthesia, depicted in (b), can't be caused by nerve damage. The realization that such a condition was likely caused by emotional trauma led Freud to develop psychoanalytic theory, which emphasized unconscious conflict. Psychoanalytic perspective-Personality is set early in childhood & is driven by unconscious & anxiety-ridden sexual impulses that we poorly understand. A speculative, hard-to-test theory that has had an enormous cultural influence & a significant impact on psychology.
What Are Objective Tests?
Objective tests-Personality tests that ask direct, unambiguous questions about a person's thoughts, feelings, & behavior. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)-An objective personality test consisting of true-false items that measure various personality dimensions & clinical conditions such as depression. Since its development in the 1940s, the MMPI has been revised so its language & content better reflect contemporary concerns & a more culturally diverse population. The more recent 2nd edition, the MMPI-2, has 567 items, with participants responding "True," "False," or "Cannot say," An empirically derived test, meaning that the items were not selected for inclusion on a theoretical basis but were included only if they clearly distinguished one group of people from another (for example, patients with schizophrenia vs a normal comparison group). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)-created in the 1940s by Katharine Cook Briggs & her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers. Based on Carl Jung's theory of personality. Widely used in many job fields & employment agencies to help people find careers that best fit their personalities (Wilde, 2011). Measures the degree to which respondents are introverted vs extraverted in their orientation toward the world, practical vs intuitive in dealing with their perceptions, analytical vs emotional in their judgments, & methodical vs spontaneous in their decision-making. When combined, these 4 classification preferences place a respondent into one of 16 personality types (Ross, 2011). Although it may be the most widely used personality measure in the world, questions remain regarding its accuracy, with some studies supporting & others questioning its validity.
Chapter Summary
Personality is the consistent & distinctive thoughts, feelings, & behaviors in which an individual engages. The psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, & social-cognitive perspectives provide different explanations of personality. Projective & objective tests allow psychologists to measure personality.
What Are Projective Tests?
Projective tests-Psychological tests that ask people to respond to ambiguous stimuli or situations in ways that will reveal their unconscious motives & desires. The Rorschach Inkblot Test-Introduced in 1921 by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922). 5 cards are black & white, & 5 are colored. A projective personality test in which people are shown 10 symmetrical inkblots & asked what each might be depicting. Scored on 3 major features: the location or part of the card mentioned in the response; the content of the response; & which aspect, or determinant, of the card (its color or shading) prompted the response. Rorschach's original system of scoring was later revised, & by 1950, there were 5 separate systems for scoring & interpreting the inkblots, with none of them exhibiting good reliability or validity. Attempting to correct these problems, James Exner (1993) integrated the five scoring systems into 1 system that decreased, but didn't eliminate, reliability & validity concerns. Thematic Apperception Test-Henry Murray developed it in 1937. A test in which people "project" their inner feelings & motives through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures. He hypothesized that the issues that people are struggling with in their own lives would be perceived to be issues for the characters in the cards. He proposed that the storyteller could give the characters various needs. The problem with projective tests is that they're unreliable because results vary.
Reciprocal Determinism
Reciprocal determinism is the idea that personality emerges from an ongoing mutual interaction between people's cognitions, their behavior, and their environment.
What Are Defense Mechanisms?
Repression-In Freud's theory, a very basic defense mechanism in which people move anxiety-arousing thoughts from the conscious mind into the unconscious mind. Rationalization-A defense mechanism in which people offer logical, self-justifying explanations for their actions in place of the real, more anxiety-producing, unconscious reasons. Reaction formation-A defense mechanism that allows people to express unacceptable feelings or ideas by consciously expressing the exact opposite. Displacement-A defense mechanism that diverts people's sexual or aggressive urges toward objects that are more acceptable than those that actually stimulate their feelings. Projection-A powerful defense mechanism in which people perceive their own aggressive or sexual urges, not in themselves, but in others. Regression-A defense mechanism in which people faced with intense anxiety psychologically retreat to a more infantile developmental stage where some psychic energy remains fixated. Defense mechanism-In Freud's theory, the ego's method of keeping threatening & unacceptable material out of consciousness & thereby reducing anxiety.
Maslow's Self-Actualization Theory
Self-actualization-The ultimate goal of growth, the realization of one's full potential. Peak experiences-Fleeting but intense moments when a person feels happy, absorbed, & extremely capable. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was interested in people's ability to reach their full potential. Like Rogers & Freud, Maslow used the case study method in developing his theory. However, unlike Rogers and Freud, Maslow studied healthy, creative people rather than those who were troubled and seeking therapy. He chose as his subjects people who had led or were leading rich & productive lives, including outstanding college students, faculty, professionals in other fields, & historical figures, such as Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, & Eleanor Roosevelt. Maslow found that self-actualized people were secure in the sense of who they were & not paralyzed, therefore, by others' opinions. They were also loving & caring, & they often focused their energies on a particular task, one they often regarded as a life mission. Maslow also reported that these people had experienced personal or spiritual peak experiences, which are fleeting but intense moments of joy, ecstasy, & absorption, in which people feel extremely capable. A peak experience can occur while a person is engaging in a religious activity or service, while performing athletically, while listening to music, or while relating to a lover (Ravizza, 2007). Some women report their childbirth experiences to be peak experiences. Although anyone can have peak experiences, Maslow's group of self-actualizing people reported both more peak experiences & that the quality of those experiences was richer than the experiences reported by others whom he studied. These peak experiences have a lasting effect on those who experience them, enriching their outlook & causing them to become more open to the experiences of others.
Social-Cognitive Theorists Study the Self
Self-concept-The "theory" or "story" that a person constructs about herself or himself through social interaction. Self-esteem-A person's overall evaluation of his or her self-concept. Self-serving bias-The tendency to bolster & defend self-esteem by taking credit for positive events while denying blame for negative events.
Evaluation of the Humanistic Perspective
Self-help books Few testable hypotheses
Stability of Personality
Stability of Personality Traits at Different Ages A meta-analysis of 150 studies involving nearly 50,000 participants examined the stability of personality at different ages (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000). Based on the findings depicted in this graph, at what ages is personality least stable? When is it most stable?
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
Stage & Approximate age 1. Oral (0-1). 2. Anal (2-3). 3. Phallic (4-5). 4. Latency (6-11). 5. Genital (Puberty onward) Erogenous zone & key tasks/experiences 1. Mouth (sucking, biting) weaning (from breast or bottle). 2. Anus (defecating) Toilet training. 3. Genitals (masturbating) Coping with Oedipal/Electra conflict & identifying with same-sex parent.. 4. None (sexual desires repressed) Developing same-sex contacts. 5. Genitals (being sexually intimate) Establishing mature sexual relationships. Psychosexual stages-The fixed sequence of childhood developmental stages during which the id primarily seeks sexual pleasure by focusing its energies on distinct erogenous zones. Fixation-A tendency to persist in pleasure-seeking behaviors associated with an earlier psychosexual stage during which conflicts were unresolved. Penis envy girls belief that mothers castrated them & that's why they don't have a penis.
Rogers's Person-Centered Theory
Unconditional positive regard-An attitude of complete acceptance toward another person regardless of what she or he has said or done; based on the belief in that person's essential goodness. Conditional positive regard-An attitude of acceptance toward another person only when she or he meets your standards. Rogers's Person-Centered Theory-Carl Rogers (1902-1987) believed that people are basically good & that we all are working toward becoming the best that we can be. Rogers (1961) asserted that, instead of being driven by sexual & aggressive desires, we are motivated by a wish to be good, & that we would achieve our potential if we were given unconditional positive regard. Unfortunately, according to Rogers, many of us are frustrated in our potential growth because important people in our lives often provide us with positive regard only if we meet their standards. Being the recipient of this conditional positive regard stunts our personal growth because, in our desire to be regarded positively, we lose sight of our ideal self, which is the person whom we would like to become. States that as we continue to adjust our lives to meet others' expectations, the discrepancy between our actual self, which is the person we know ourselves to be now, & our ideal self becomes greater. His theory of personality is as much about how people change as it is about how people are at any given moment (Kirschenbaum, 2004). For him, the dilemma of personality involves how people's thwarted growth potential can be released. The answer to this dilemma is for people with damaged selves, or low self-esteem, to find someone who will treat them with unconditional positive regard. The assumption here is that when people are accepted for who they are, they'll eventually come to accept themselves as well. With this self-acceptance, people can then put aside others' standards that are false for them & get back on track in developing their true selves. Conveying unconditional positive regard to others involves the following 3 characteristics: genuineness (being open & honest), warmth (being caring & nurturing), & empathy (accurately identifying what the person is thinking & feeling).
What Shapes Personality?
Yerkes-Dodson law-The idea that we perform best when we are at an intermediate level of arousal. Nervous system arousal-Eysenck (1997) suggested that these differences in personality types are caused by inherited differences in people's nervous systems, especially their brains. Also consistent with Eysenck's arousal hypothesis are the findings that introverts are more sensitive to pain than are extraverts & that they salivate more when lemon juice is place on their tongues than do extraverts. Some more inventive studies that Eysenck & his colleagues conducted to test the hypothesis that introverts have higher levels of arousal than extraverts involved classically conditioning the eye-blink response, using puffs of air to the eye as the unconditioned response. Another related personality characteristic associated with a hyperactive nervous system & different brain activity is shyness, which involves feelings of discomfort & inhibition during interpersonal situations (Rubin et al., 2002). Although almost everybody feels shy at some point in their lives, about 40% of the population is excessively shy, which hinders them in making friends, developing romantic relationships, & pursuing other goals involving social interaction. Inherited differences can be seen in introverts' & extraverts' nervous systems, especially in their brains. Higher levels of nervous system activity & different levels of brain activation cause shy people to experience anxious emotions more frequently than do other people. Brain activity-Brain scans of chronically shy adults indicate that when they're shown unfamiliar faces or when they're interacting with strangers, these shy adults experience much greater activation of the amygdala & the right frontal lobe than do nonshy people (McManis et al., 2002). This different level of brain activation among shy people makes them more susceptible than others to experiencing anxious emotions. Environmental factors-Currently, the best estimates are that personality differences in the population are between 30% & 60% genetically determined, with the balance attributable to environment (Bouchard, 2004). Both genetic & environmental factors shape trait development.
What Is Personality?
•Personality is the consistent & distinctive thoughts, feelings, & behaviors in which an individual engages.
