Psychology Chapter 11

Defense Mechanism

In Freudian theory, the reality-distorting strategies of the ego to prevent awareness of anxiety-evoking or troubling ideas or impulses.

Self-theory

Process of fully developing one's personal potential for growth.

Personality Tests

The most widely used method for learning about personality. Structured psychological tests that use formal methods of assessing personality.

Phrenology

The now-discredited view that one can judge a person's character and mental abilities by measuring the bumps on his or her head.

1. Self-report personality inventories 2. Projective tests.

The two major types of personality tests. Predict a wide range of behaviors and are efficient and inexpensive to administer and score. However, they should not be used alone to make a diagnosis of a psychological disorder.

1. John Watson 2. B. F. Skinner

Two early, traditional Behaviorists:

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)

Was once part of Freud's inner circle but broke with Freud as he developed his own distinctive views of personality. Shared with Freud the beliefs that unconscious conflicts influence human behavior and that defense mechanisms distort or disguise people's underlying motives; however, he placed greater emphasis on the present than on infantile or childhood experience as well as greater emphasis on conscious processes, such as self-awareness and pursuit of self-directed goals

1. Hypochondriasis I am frequently bothered by an upset stomach. At times, my body seems to ache all over. Many physical complaints, cynical defeatist attitudes, often perceived as whiny, demanding 2. Depression Nothing seems to interest me anymore. My sleep is often disturbed by worrisome thoughts. Depressed mood; pessimistic, worrisome, despondent, lethargic 3. Hysteria I sometimes become flushed for no apparent reason. I tend to take people at their word when they're trying to be nice to me. Naive, egocentric, little insight into problems, immature; develops physical complaints in response to stress 4. Psychopathic deviate My parents often disliked my friends. My behavior sometimes got me into trouble at school. Difficulties incorporating values of society; rebellious, impulsive, antisocial tendencies; strained family relationships; poor work and school history 5. Masculinity-femininityFootnote I like reading about electronics. (M) I would like the work of an interior decorator. (F) Males endorsing feminine attributes: cultural and artistic interests, effeminate, sensitive, passive. Females endorsing male interests: aggressive, masculine, self-confident, active, assertive, vigorous 6. Paranoia I would have been more successful in life but people didn't give me a fair break. It's not safe to trust anyone these days. Suspicious, guarded, blames others, resentful, aloof, may have paranoid delusions 7. Psychasthenia I'm one of those people who have to have something to worry about. I seem to have more fears than most people I know. Anxious, fearful, tense, worried, insecure, difficulties concentrating, obsessional, self-doubting 8. Schizophrenia Things seem unreal to me at times. I sometimes hear things that other people cannot hear. Confused and illogical thinking, feels alienated and misunderstood, socially isolated or withdrawn, may have blatant psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations or delusional beliefs, or may lead a detached lifestyle 9. Hypomania I sometimes take on more tasks than I can possibly get done. People have noticed that my speech is sometimes pressured or rushed. Energetic, possibly manic, impulsive, optimistic, sociable, active, flighty, irritable, may have overly inflated or grandiose self-image or unrealistic plans 10. Social introversion I don't like loud parties. I was not very active in school activities. Shy, inhibited, withdrawn, introverted, lacks self-confidence, reserved, anxious in social situations

What are the ten scales of the MMPI-2?

Genetic Factors

What factors influence the development of personality traits?

40%

What percentage of variability in personality traits among people may be explained by genetics?

Karen Horney (1885-1952)

A German physician and early psychoanalyst who became a prominent theorist. One of the staunchest critics of Freud's views on female development. Accepted Freud's belief that unconscious conflicts shape personality, but she focused less on sexual and aggressive drives and more on the roles of social and cultural forces. She also emphasized the importance of parent-child relationships. Rejected Freud's belief that a female's sense of inferiority derives from penis envy. Argued that if women feel inferior, it is because they envy men their social power and authority, not their penises

social-cognitive theory

A broader view of learning than traditional Behaviorism which maintains that, to explain behavior, we need to take into account cognitive and social aspects of behavior, not just the rewards and punishments to which we are exposed in the environment. Personality consists of both learned behaviors and ways of thinking. We need to attend to the role of cognitions and observational learning to explain and predict behavior, not just to the role of environmental influences such as rewards and punishments.

Individualistic Culture

A culture that emphasizes individual identity and personal accomplishments. People belonging to this culture are likely to define themselves in terms of their unique individuality (the characteristics that distinguish them from others) and their personal accomplishments. Emphasize values relating to independence and self-sufficiency. They idealize rugged individualism as personified in tales of the nineteenth-century American West. E ncourage definitions of the self that embody individuality and uniqueness.

Collectivistic Culture

A culture that emphasizes people's social roles and obligations. People belonging to this culture define themselves according to the social roles they assume or the groups to which they belong. Value the group's goals over the individual's. They emphasize communal values such as harmony, respect for authority and for one's elders, conformity, cooperation, interdependence, and conflict avoidance. Foster the development of communal or interdependent concepts of the self.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A leading example of a multidimensional personality test. The most widely used self-report personality inventory in the world. Was constructed to help clinicians diagnose mental disorders. Scales are composed of items that differentiate responses of people from particular diagnostic groups from those of people in a normal reference group.

Behavior Therapy

A major contemporary model of psychotherapy given way by Learning Theory in which learning principles are applied to help people deal with emotional and behavioral problems.

MMPI-2

A revised edition of the MMPI test. Consists of 567 true-false items that yield scores on ten clinical scales and additional scales measuring other personality dimensions and response tendencies.

Self-regulatory systems and plans

Ability to plan a course of action to achieve our goals and to reward ourselves for accomplishing them emphasized by Walter Mischel..

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance of another person that is complete and unqualified, regardless of the person's behavior.

Repression

Act of keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious. The major defense mechanism (motivated forgetting) involving banishment to the unconscious of unacceptable wishes, fantasies, urges, and impulses. Permits people to remain outwardly calm and controlled even though they harbor hateful or lustful urges under the surface of awareness. Expulsion from awareness of unacceptable ideas or motives

Individual Psychology

Adler's theory of personality, which emphasizes the unique potential of each individual.

neuroticism (more poorly adjusted)

Adults who are higher on this Big Five trait tend to present more of a fake or idealized image of themselves on their Facebook profiles

Secondary Traits

Allport's term for specific traits that influence behavior in relatively few situations. Superficial level of traits such as preferences for particular styles of clothing or types of music, which affect behavior in fewer situations.

Cardinal Traits

Allport's term for the more pervasive dimensions that define an individual's general personality. The highest level of traits. Pervasive characteristics that influence a person's behavior in most situations, dominating and shaping a person's behavior. Allport's term for the more pervasive dimensions that define an individual's general personality.

impaired thinking and perceptual processing

Although the value of the Rorschach continues to be debated, recent evidence supports the validity of some Rorschach interpretations, especially responses indicative of:

moral conscience

Another by-product of the Oedipus complex is development of the superego—the internalization of parental values in the form of a:

have a baby—that is, as a kind of penis substitute for their missing penis.

As girls become sexually mature, they forsake their wish to have a penis of their own (to "be a man") for a desire to:

self-esteem

At first mirrors how other people value us, or fail to value us. A function of how close we come to meeting our self-ideals One of the primary functions of the self. To develop a degree of liking for ourselves.

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura's model in which cognitions, behaviors, and environmental factors influence and are influenced by each other.

classical and operant conditioning

Behaviorists believe that behavior is learned on the basis of:

Behaviorists

Believe that personality is shaped by environmental influences (rewards and punishments) and that personality consists of the sum total of an individual's learned behavior. Link personality to the sum total of a person's history of punishments and reinforcements.

Abraham Maslow

Believed in an innate human drive toward self-actualization—toward becoming all that we are capable of being. Whereas Freud was primarily concerned with our baser instincts, this American Psychologist focused on the highest reaches of human endeavor, the process of realizing our unique potentials. His concept of self-actualization is a key element of personality and human motivation.

Albert Bandura

Believes people act as active agents in directing their lives. Theorized Reciprocal Determinism. Focused on the interaction between what we do (our behavior) and what we think (our cognitions). Emphasized the role of observational learning, or learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others in social contexts. Also emphasized the importance of two cognitive variables: outcome expectations and efficacy expectations.

unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulses or wishes

But much of the ego operates below the surface of consciousness, where it employs strategies called defense mechanisms to prevent awareness of:

self-theory

Carl Rogers's model of personality, which focuses on the importance of the self , the sense of the "I" or "me" that organizes how you relate to the world. Reflects the importance of coming to know yourself and being true to yourself, regardless of what others might think or say.

Surface Traits

Cattell's term for personality traits at the surface level that can be gleaned from observations of behavior. Lie on the "surface" of personality. (friendliness, stubbornness, emotionality, and carelessness.) Often occur together (For example, a person others see as stubborn also tends to be perceived as rigid and foul tempered.) Correspond to ordinary descriptions of personality.

Rorschach test

Consists of ten cards. Five have splashes of color, and the others are in black and white and shades of gray. Subjects are asked what each blot looks like. After the responses to each card are obtained, the examiner conducts a follow-up inquiry to probe more deeply into the person's responses. The scoring is based on such features as content (what the blot looked like—a "bat," for example) and form level (consistency of the response with the actual shape of the blot). Poor form level may indicate problems with perceiving reality clearly or perhaps an overly fertile imagination. Those who see formless figures dominated by color—who see reddened areas as "blood," for instance—may have difficulties controlling their emotions. The content of the response may indicate underlying conflicts with others. For example, someone who sees only animal figures and no human forms may have difficulties relating to other people. More widely used than the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

1. Self-serving biases and tendencies for people to filter information about themselves in terms of how it reflects upon them. 2. The Barnum effect—the tendency to believe overgeneralized descriptions of personality as accurate descriptions of oneself.

Contributors to beliefs in astrology and other pseudosciences:

1. The difficulties in studying private, subjective experiences scientifically. 2. Emphasis on self-fulfillment may lead some people to become self-indulgent and so absorbed with themselves that they develop a lack of concern for others.

Criticisms of the humanistic perspective:

Collectivistic

Culture associated with Asia, Africa, and Central and South America

Individualistic

Culture associated with the United States, Canada, and many Western European countries

Humanistic psychology

Departed from the psychodynamic and behaviorist schools in proposing that conscious choice and personal freedom are central features of what it means to be a human being

Source Traits

Derived from Raymond Cattell's statistical techniques to map the structure of personality by analyzing the relationships among surface traits. Traits that are general factor of personality at a deep level of personality that are not apparent in observed behavior but must be inferred based on underlying relationships among surface traits. Give rise to surface traits.

racism and discrimination

Ethnic identity in people of color is a strong predictor of self-esteem and helps buffer the emotional effects of:

1. Shyness 2. Aggressiveness 3. Sociability 4. Novelty seeking

Evidence supports the role of genetics in many personality traits, including the Big Five traits, as well as four other traits:

creativity, innovation, and personal initiative

Excessive collectivism may stifle ...

unmitigated greed and exploitation.

Excessive individualism may lead to...

1. Carl Jung 2. Alfred Adler 3. Karen Horney 4. Erik Erikson

Four leading Neo-Freudians:

1. Case studies 2. Interviews 3. Observational techniques 4. Experimental studies

Four methods psychologists use today to assess personality include:

sexual and aggressive impulses

Freud believed that giving free rein to our instincts might tear apart the very fabric of society and of the family unit itself. To live in an ordered society, he maintained, humans need to control their primitive:

preservation of the species

Freud believed we are endowed with a sexual instinct that has as its purpose the:

Psychoanalysis

Freud developed a method of psychotherapy that focuses on helping people gain insight into the unconscious motives and conflicts that he believed were at the root of their problems. This psychotherapy is called:

Henry Murray

Harvard Psychologist who developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in the 1930s

Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922)

His fascination with inkblots earned him the nickname Klex, which means "inkblot" in German. Went on to become a psychiatrist, turned his childhood pastime into the psychological test that bears his name.

Womb Envy

Horney's term that men may experience over the obvious "physiological superiority" of women with respect to their biological capacity for creating and bringing life into the world.

The confirmation bias leads us to give credence to information that confirms our preexisting beliefs and to ignore contrary evidence. Thus, for example, we are more likely to believe astrological readings when they conform to beliefs we already hold about ourselves than when they provide contrary information.

How does the confirmation bias contribute to beliefs in astrology?

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Humanistic Psychologist who believed that each of us possesses an inner drive that leads us to strive toward. Believed that personality is expressed through the conscious experience of directing ourselves toward fulfilling our unique potentials as human beings and that the self is the center of the human experience. Developed self-theory of personality. Believed that the self is the executive part of your personality that organizes how you relate to the world. Believed that parents should prize their children regardless of their behavior at any particular moment in time.

The structure of personality

Id, ego, and superego refer to which component of psychoanalytic theory?

Inferiority Complex

In Adler's theory, a concept involving the influence that feelings of inadequacy or inferiority in young children have on their developing personalities and desires to compensate.

Regression

In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism in which an individual, usually under high levels of stress, reverts to a behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development. The return of behavior that is typical of earlier stages of development such as nail biting or becoming dependent of others when under stress.

Displacement

In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism in which an unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulse is transferred to an object or person that is safer or less threatening than the original object of the impulse. (Slamming a door when angry.)

Latency Stage

In Freudian theory, the fourth stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual impulses remain latent or dormant. From ages 6-12 (puberty.) Focus on play and school.

Reality Principle

In Freudian theory, the governing principle of the ego that takes into account what is practical and acceptable in satisfying basic needs.

Oedipus complex

In Freudian theory, the psychological complex in which the young boy or girl develops incestuous feelings toward the parent of the opposite gender and perceives the parent of the same gender as a rival. Named after the ancient Greek myth of Oedipus the King—the tragic story of Oedipus who unwittingly slew his father and married his mother.

Locus of Control

In Rotter's theory, one's general expectancies about whether one's efforts can bring about desired outcomes or reinforcements.

emotions (affects) and cognitions

In his more recent work, Walter Mischel has focused on the interactions of:

Expectancies

In social-cognitive theory, personal predictions about the outcomes of behavior.

Subjective Value

In social-cognitive theory, the importance individuals place on desired outcomes.

Survival

In the tradition of Darwin, Freud recognized that we share with nonhuman animals certain common processes with their aim being:

1. Trait theories are useful to the extent that they provide convenient categories or groupings of traits that people commonly use. 2. Trait theories prove to be useful in the development of many personality tests, including Cattell's 16PF and the Eysenck Personality Inventory.

In what two ways are trait theories useful?

Self-efficacy

Is linked to success in a number of ways. High levels in students (believing they will succeed in class if they apply themselves) is a stronger predictor of college GPA than even high school GPA or SAT or ACT scores. The belief in our ability to accomplish tasks we set out to do- emphasized by Albert Bandura's Social-cognitive model of personality. Belief in personal effectiveness.

history of rewards and punishments

Learning theorists have increased our understanding of how behavior is influenced by environmental factors, such as a:

External Locus of Control

Linked to depression and anxiety. People believe that outcomes in life, and the rewards or reinforcements they receive, are controlled by external forces beyond their control, such as luck or fate possess what kind of locus of control?

Assessment Techniques: Behavioral Observation Therapy: Behavior Therapy

List the Assessment Techniques and Associated Therapy of the following Theoretical Perspective on Personality: Model: Behaviorism Key Theorists: Watson, Skinner Major Concepts: Personality consists of learned behavior acquired through classical and operant conditioning.

Assessment Techniques: self-concept measures Therapy: Roger's client-centered therapy

List the Assessment Techniques and Associated Therapy of the following Theoretical Perspective on Personality: Model: Humanistic Key Theorists: Rogers, Maslow Major Concepts: Personality consists of the subjective experience of being in the world, organized around a concept of the self.

Assessment Techniques: Interviews, projective tests Therapy: Psychoanalysis

List the Assessment Techniques and Associated Therapy of the following Theoretical Perspective on Personality: Model: Psychoanalytic Key Theorists: Freud Major Concepts: Personality is influenced by an unconscious dynamic struggle among the id, the ego, and the superego.

Assessment Techniques: Interviews, Projective Techniques Therapy: Psychodynamic Therapy

List the Assessment Techniques and Associated Therapy of the following Theoretical Perspective on Personality: Model: Psychodynamic (neo-Freudians) Key Theorists: Adler, Jung, Horney, Erikson Major Concepts: Social factors and development of self are more important influences on personality than sexual motivation.

Assessment Techniques: Behavioral observation, interviewing, self-report measures, thought checklists Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy

List the Assessment Techniques and Associated Therapy of the following Theoretical Perspective on Personality: Model: Social-cognitive Key Theorists: Rotter, Bandura, Mischel Major Concepts: Personality consists of the individual's repertoire of behaviors and ways of thinking about the world.

Assessment Techniques: Self-report personality inventories, such as Cattell's 16PF Therapy: None

List the Assessment Techniques and Associated Therapy of the following Theoretical Perspective on Personality: Model: Trait Key Theorists: Allport, Cattell, Eysenck Major Concepts: Personality consists of a set of underlying traits that account for the characteristic ways people act in different situations.

person and the environment

Many psychologists have come to believe that behavior is best explained by the reciprocal interactions between the

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

Member of Freud's inner circle who broke away to develop his own theory of personality called individual psychology because of its emphasis on the unique potential of each individual. Believed that conscious experience plays a greater role in our personalities than Freud had believed.

Situation Variables

Mischel's term for environmental influences on behavior, such as rewards and punishments.

Person Variables

Mischel's term for internal personal factors that influence behavior, including competencies, expectancies, subjective values, encoding strategies, and self-regulatory systems and plans.

defense mechanisms

Much of the ego operates below the surface of consciousness, preventing awareness of or anxiety that may occur due to unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulses or wishes from the id by employing strategies called:

Ethnic Identity

One explanation of the self-esteem advantage among young African Americans is that they tend to have a stronger sense of:

a stronger sense of community and greater social connections to others of similar backgrounds

One reason for the link between ethnic identity and self-esteem is that ethnic identity among people of color contributes to:

Superego

Our internal moral guardian or conscience. Develops by 3 to 5 years of age during middle childhood, splitting off from the ego and forming through a process of internalizing the moral teachings of parents or other significant figures. Some lies in the conscious but most is unconscious.

Erogenous Zones

Parts of the body that are especially sensitive to sexual or pleasurable stimulation.

age

People tend to become more agreeable (friendlier) as they:

Internal Locus of Control

People who believe they can obtain reinforcements through their work and effort possess what kind of locus of control?

1. Succeed in school. 2. Cope with pain. 3. In overweight people, make changes in diet and exercise

People with an internal LOC are more likely than "externals" to do what three things:

Encoding Strategies

Personal perceptions of events, such as whether we see a sudden gift of a basket of flowers as a gesture of love or as a way of making amends.

Behaviorism

Personality is the sum total of an individual's learned behavior; distinctive patterns of behavior are determined by differences in learning experiences.

Projective Tests

Personality tests in which ambiguous or vague test materials are used to elicit responses that are believed to reveal a person's unconscious needs, drives, and motives. Are based on the belief in psychodynamic theory that people transfer, or "project," their unconscious needs, drives, and motives onto their responses to unstructured or vague stimuli. Unlike objective tests, have a response format that is not restricted to "yes-no" or multiple-choice answers or other limited response options. Were developed to help reveal unconscious desires and motives.

fixations

Psychological conflicts may emerge during each psychosexual stage of development. These conflicts, which often arise from receiving too much or too little gratification, can lead to the development of personality traits or behavior patterns characteristic of the particular stage called:

Julian Rotter

Psychologist who believed that explaining and predicting behavior involves knowing an individual's reinforcement history as well as the person's expectancies and subjective values. Believed that people acquire general expectancies about their ability to obtain reinforcements in their lives.

1. Heredity 2. Environment

Psychologists are moving beyond the nature-nurture debate to examine how what two factors interact in the development of personality.

Personality tests

Psychologists use these to compare how people score on different traits.

Humanistic Psychologists

Psychologists who believe we are not puppets whose movements are controlled by strings pulled by the unconscious mind or the environment; rather, we are endowed with the ability to make free choices that give meaning and personal direction to our lives.

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

Raymond Cattell's paper-and-pencil personality scale to measure 16 source traits. Each trait is represented on a continuum, such as "reserved versus outgoing.

self-actualization

Realizing our own unique potentials. An unfolding process of self-discovery and self-awareness, of tapping into our true feelings and needs, accepting them as our own, and acting in ways that genuinely reflect them.

biases

Reliance on self-report data in personality tests such as the MMPI can introduce potential:

Freudian slips

Repressed desires or memories may become revealed in two disguised forms, such as in dream symbols and in slips of the tongue called:

1. Dream Symbols 2. Slips of the Tongue (Freudian Slips)

Repressed desires or memories may become revealed in two disguised forms:

self-ideals

Rogers's term for the idealized sense of how or what we should be.

1. Knowing an individual's reinforcement history 2. Knowing the person's expectancies 3. Subjective values 4. Perceptions of control

Rotter believed that our ability to explain and predict behavior depends on what four things?

clinically elevated or abnormally high

Scores of 65 or higher on the clinical scales of the MMPI are considered:

standard scores

Scores that represent an individual's relative deviation from the mean of the standardization sample.

1. They are relatively inexpensive to administer and score—in fact, many can be machine-scored and interpreted by computer. 2. People may also be more willing to disclose personal information on paper-and-pencil tests than when facing an interviewer. 3. The results of these tests may be used to predict a wide range of behaviors, including the ability to relate effectively to others and to achieve positions of leadership or dominance.

Self-report personality inventories have several strengths

1. Acquire Competencies: Become Good at Something 2. Set Realistic, Achievable Goals 3. Enhance Self-Efficacy Expectations 4. Create a Sense of Meaningfulness in Your Life 5. Challenge Perfectionistic Expectations 6. Challenge the Need for Constant Approval 7. Avoid Comparing Facebook Profiles

Seven tips for building self-esteem:

Walter Mischel (1930- )

Social-cognitive Theorist who argued that behavior is influenced by both situation variables (environmental factors) and person variables (internal factors). His theoretical model overlaps to a large extent with Rotter's and Bandura's. Believed that environmental and personal factors interact to produce behavior.

self-report personality inventories (self-report personality tests)

Structured psychological tests in which individuals are given a limited range of response options to answer a set of questions about themselves in the form of "yes-no," "true-false," or "agree-disagree" types of response formats. Response options are limited so as to make scoring them objective. Also called objective tests because they use objective methods of scoring and are based on a research foundation.

intelligence

Success in school may have more to do with personality traits than:

Objective tests

Tests of personality that can be scored objectively and that are based on a research foundation.

Sigmund Freud

The architect of the first major theory of personality, called psychoanalytic theory/Psychodynamic Theory of Personality- the belief that personality is shaped by underlying conflicts between opposing forces within the mind.

Interactionism

The belief that both personality traits and situational factors, and the interactions between them, influence behavior.

client-centered therapy

The importance of the self is emphasized in this model of therapy Rogers developed. Also called person-centered therapy. Helps people get in touch with their true feelings and come to value and prize themselves.

self-concept

The impressions you have of yourself compose your:

schizophrenia

The interaction of genetic and environmental factors is implicated in the development of many psychological disorders, such as:

Competencies

The knowledge and skills we possess, such as the ability to play an instrument or to speak a foreign language. Personal knowledge and skills.

The self

The sense of being "I" or "me"—the person who looks back at you in the mirror, the sense of being a distinct individual with your own likes, dislikes, needs, and values. Includes the impressions you have of yourself, impressions that constitute your self-concept.

the focus on conscious experience

The strength of the humanistic viewpoint which is also its greatest weakness when approached as a scientific endeavor.

The Barnum Effect

The tendency to believe overgeneralized descriptions of personality as accurate descriptions of oneself. Named after the famous nineteenth-century circus showman P. T. Barnum, who once said, "There's a sucker born every minute."

Self-serving bias

The tendency to place greater emphasis on information that bolsters a positive self-image. Accounts for the tendency of people to take credit for their successes and to explain away their failures or disappointments

1. Julian Rotter 2. Albert Bandura 3. Walter Mischel

The three primary contributors to social-cognitive theory are the psychologists:

1. Rorschach test 2. Thematic Apperception Test

The two most widely used projective tests:

Social-cognitive Theorists

Theorists who believe that personality comprises not only learned behavior but also the ways individuals think about themselves and the world around them and that personality consists of individuals' repertoires of behavior and ways of thinking about themselves and the world. They believe that people act upon the environment in pursuing their goals, not just react to it. Broadened the scope of learning theory to include cognitive influences on learning and the recognition that much of what we learn occurs by observing others in social contexts. ***Presented us with a view of people as active seekers and interpreters of information, not just responders to environmental influences.*** Counter that traits don't explain behavior but merely attach labels to behavior.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

This test developed by Henry Murray consists of a set of pictures depicting ambiguous scenes that may be interpreted differently. The subject of the test is asked to tell a story about the scene, what led up to these events, and what the eventual outcome will be.

controversy over their validity and clinical utility

Though psychologists widely use projective tests, what two controversies exist?

1. Unconscious processes 2. Genetic factors in personality

Though social-cognitive theory broadened traditional learning theory, critics claim that it doesn't account for what two things?

1. Trait theories merely attach a label to behavior rather than explaining it, resulting in circular reasoning through attempted explanations of behavior. 2. Failure to account for differences in behavior across situations because behavior may not be as stable across time and situations as trait theorists suppose.

Though trait theories provide convenient ways of describing personality features, they have been criticized in what two ways?

1. Presents a limited view of personality because it fails to account for the roles of unconscious influences and heredity. 2. Social-cognitive theorists fail to take personality traits into account when attempting to explain underlying consistencies in behavior across situations. 3. It focuses too little on subjective experience, such as self-awareness and the flow of consciousness.

Three criticisms of social-cognitive theory:

conscientiousness and openness

To achieve academic success, students need to be able to organize and apply themselves and be open to new learning and experiences—traits which map to Big Five traits of:

cognitive-behavioral therapy, or CBT

Today, many behavior therapists subscribe to a broader treatment model which incorporates cognitive as well as behavioral approaches to therapy and mirrors the teachings of the social-cognitive theorists.

1. Perceptions of control 2. Predictability

Two important factors in determining a person's ability to cope with stressful life events.

1. Competencies 2. Encoding strategies 3. Self-regulatory systems and plans

Two of Walter Mischel's person variables, expectancies and subjective values, have the same meaning as in Julian Rotter's model, but Mischel adds other three person variables, including

1. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) 2. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970).

Two of the major contributors to humanistic thought were the American psychologists:

Conditional Positive Regard

Valuing a person only when the person's behavior meets certain expectations or standards. Many parents bestow approval only when children behave "properly." Children given this may learn to think of themselves as being worthwhile only when they are behaving in socially approved ways.

Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers)

Valuing another person as having intrinsic worth, regardless of the person's behavior at the particular time. Acceptance of a person's basic worth regardless of whether their behavior pleases or suits us. Carl Rogers believed it to be imperative to be bestowed upon by children from their parents in order to develop self-esteem.

1. The scoring of test responses is largely based on the examiner's subjective impressions. 2. Another problem with projective tests is stimulus pull. Despite efforts to make stimuli ambiguous, they often contain cues, such as sad-looking faces in the TAT, that may elicit (pull for) certain types of responses. 3. Critics of the Rorschach claim it lacks the overall validity and usefulness needed for clinical assessment of personality or emotional disorder

What are some drawbacks of projective tests such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Rorschach Test?

Situational Factors

What factors clearly affect behavior in that people tend to act differently in different situations depending upon the particular demands they face?

Environmental Influences (such as life experiences)

What influences affect the developing brain in ways that influence personality development?

60%

What percentage of variability in personality traits among people may be explained by environmental factors?

1. Expectancies we hold about the outcomes of our behavior 2. The values we place on rewards 3. The learning that occurs through imitating the behavior of others we observe interacting in social situations.

What three principles do social and cognitive variables include?

1. Expectancies 2. Subjective values

What two cognitive factors do Social-cognitive theorists emphasize that they believe addresses the concerns and criticisms of their theories?

Environmental or situational factors, such as stimulus cues and reinforcements

What two factors do learning theorists argue that we need to take into account in order to more accurately predict behavior?

graph

When scoring the MMPI, one converts raw scores (number of items scored in the same direction as the diagnostic group) into standard scores, which are then plotted on a:

culture in which we are raised.

Whether we define ourselves in terms of our individuality or the social roles that we perform is influenced by the values of the:

Outcome Expectations

Bandura's term for our personal predictions about the outcomes of our behavior.

Efficacy Expectations

Bandura's term for the expectancies we have regarding our ability to perform behaviors we set out to accomplish.

Drive for superiority

Adler's term for the motivation to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Also called the will-to-power. May motivate us to try harder and achieve worthwhile goals, such as professional accomplishments and positions of prominence. Or it may lead us to be domineering or callous toward others, to perhaps step on or over people as we make our way up the professional or social ladder.

Psychodynamic Theorists

Emphasize unconscious influences on personality. They believe our personalities are shaped by a struggle between opposing forces within the mind that occurs outside the range of ordinary consciousness.

1. extraverted-neurotic 2. extraverted-stable 3. introverted-stable 4. introverted-neurotic

Eysenck's four basic personality types based on combinations of introversion-extraversion and neuroticism:

homosexuality

For either boys or girls, failure to identify with the parent of the same gender may lead to the development of traits associated with the opposite gender and perhaps, according to Freud, to the development of:

Social-cognitive theorists

View personality in terms of our individual learning history and ways of thinking.

conscious awareness

We can liken Freud's model of the human mind to a giant iceberg. Like an iceberg, which has much of its mass hidden below the surface of the water, most of the mind lies below the surface of:

Conscientiousness

Big Five Trait that tends to increase in early adulthood from about age 18 to about age 40, which represents the time of life when people tend to take on more career and family responsibilities. Ties in to longevity. Higher levels of this trait is associated with living a longer and healthier life, possibly because people tend to take better care of their health (controlling their weight, not smoking, exercising regularly) and avoid reckless behaviors, such as unsafe driving.

guilt or shame

But much of the superego operates in the unconscious, standing in judgment of whether the actions of the ego are morally right or wrong. When they are not, the superego can impose self-punishment in the form of:

1. Freud placed too much importance on sexual and aggressive drives and too little emphasis on the role of social relationships in the development of personality. 2. Lack of evidence to support many of the principles on which his theory is based, including his beliefs in castration anxiety, penis envy, and the universality of the Oedipus complex. Some critics question whether the Oedipus complex even exists at all. 3. The progression and timing of Freud's psychosexual stages of development is questionable. 4. Resting almost entirely on evidence gathered from a relatively few case studies seems insufficient 5. Difficulty in scientifically testing many of its key concepts, especially those involving the unconscious mind.

Criticisms of Freud's Psychodynamic Theory include:

1. Levels of consciousness 2. Structure of personality 3. Defense mechanisms 4. Stages of psychosexual development

Freud developed psychoanalytic theory to account for how the mind accomplishes the task of balancing the conflicting demands of instinct and social acceptability. His theory of personality can be represented in terms of four major concepts:

1. id 2. ego 3. superego

Freud proposed that personality consists of three mental entities. According to Freud, the balance and interactions of these three parts of the personality largely determine our behavior and our ability to function effectively in meeting the life challenges we face. These three mental entities are:

1. The conscious 2. The preconscious 3. The unconscious

Freud represented the mind as consisting of three levels of consciousness:

Id

Freud's term for the psychic structure existing in the unconscious that contains our baser animal drives and instinctual impulses such as hunger, thirst, elimination, sex, and aggression. Literally "it." Stirs us to action to ensure that our basic biological needs are met and is the only psychic structure present at birth and follows what Freud called the pleasure principle.

Ego

Freud's term for the psychic structure that attempts to balance the instinctual demands of the id with social realities and expectations. A second part of the mind that forms during the first year of life that is responsible for organizing ways to handle delays of gratification, representing "reason and good sense." Operates according to the reality principle and seeks ways to satisfy the demands of the id without incurring social disapproval. The great compromiser, standing between the superego and the id. Seeks to satisfy the demands of the id without offending the moral standards of the superego.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's theory of personality that holds that personality and behavior are shaped by unconscious forces and conflicts. Has had a major impact on psychology and beyond but critics contend that it lacks support from rigorous scientific studies for many of its key concepts.

Creative Self

In Adler's theory, the self-aware part of personality that organizes goal-seeking efforts. Strives toward overcoming obstacles that lie in the path of pursuing our potentials, of becoming all that we seek to become.

Gender-based behaviors

In Freud's view, boys normally resolve the conflict by forsaking their incestuous wishes for their mother and identifying with their rival—their father. Girls normally surrender their incestuous desires for their father and identify with their mother. Identification with the parent of the same sex leads to the development of:

1. Oral Stage 2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage

In Freud's view, personality develops through five psychosexual stages of development:

Reaction Formation

In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving behavior that stands in opposition to one's true motives and desires so as to prevent conscious awareness of them. Behaving in a way that is the opposite of one's true wishes or desires in order to keep these repressed. (A personal crusade to stop pornography when feeling sexually frustrated.)

Sublimation

In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the channeling of unacceptable impulses into socially sanctioned behaviors or interests. The channeling of unacceptable impulses into socially constructive pursuits A person channels aggressive impulses into competitive sports.

Denial

In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the failure to recognize a threatening impulse or urge. Refusal to recognize a threatening impulse or desire. (Acting like something was no big deal.)

Projection

In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the projection of one's own unacceptable impulses, wishes, or urges onto another person. Imposing one's own impulses or wishes onto another person. A sexually inhibited person misinterprets other people's friendly approaches as sexual advances.

Rationalization

In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the use of self-justification to explain away unacceptable behavior, impulses, or ideas. The use of self-justifications to explain away unacceptable behavior. Act of creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior. (I continue to smoke because cancer doesn't run in my family.)

Pleasure Principle

In Freudian theory, a governing and operating principle of the id that is based on demand for instant gratification without regard to social rules or customs, guiding a person towards whatever feels good. Wants what it wants when it wants it.

Anal-expulsive personality

In Freudian theory, a personality type characterized by messiness, lack of self-discipline, and carelessness.

anal retentive personality

In Freudian theory, a personality type characterized by perfectionism and excessive needs for self-control as expressed through extreme neatness and punctuality.

Penis Envy

In Freudian theory, jealousy of boys for having a penis. Leads girls to feel inferior or inadequate in relation to boys and to unconsciously blame their mother for bringing them into the world so "ill-equipped."

Genital Stage

In Freudian theory, the fifth and final stage of psychosexual development, which begins around puberty and corresponds to the development of mature sexuality and emphasis on procreation. Ages of puberty to adulthood.

Oral Stage

In Freudian theory, the first stage of psychosexual development, during which the infant seeks sexual gratification through oral stimulation (sucking, mouthing, and biting). Spans the period of birth through about 12 to 18 months of age. Too much gratification in this stage may lead to oral fixations in adulthood such as smoking, nail biting, alcohol abuse, and overeating. Too little gratification, perhaps from early weaning, may lead to the development of traits that suggest a failure to have needs met for nurturance and care during infancy, such as passivity, clinging dependence, and a pessimistic outlook.

Anal Stage

In Freudian theory, the second stage of psychosexual development, during which sexual gratification is centered on processes of elimination (retention and release of bowel contents). Entered by about 18 months of age lasting until about 3 years of age. Anal fixations reflect either too harsh or too lenient toilet training. Training that is too harsh may lead to traits associated with the anal-retentive personality. Extremely lax training may lead to an opposite array of traits associated with the anal-expulsive personality.

Phallic Stage

In Freudian theory, the third stage of psychosexual development, marked by erotic attention on the phallic region (penis in boys, clitoris in girls) and the development of the Oedipus complex. Spans the ages of 3-6. Conflicts with parents over masturbation (self-stimulation of the phallic area) may emerge at this time. Core conflict is the Oedipus complex. Conflicts in this stage may result in homosexuality, resentment of authority figures in men; unresolved penis envy in women.

Castration Anxiety

In Freudian theory, unconscious fear of removal of the penis as punishment for having unacceptable sexual impulses.

Basic Anxiety

In Horney's theory, a deep-seated form of anxiety in children that is associated with feelings of being isolated and helpless in a world perceived as potentially threatening and hostile.

Basic Hostility

In Horney's theory, deep feelings of resentment that children may harbor toward their parents.

Collective Unconscious

In Jung's theory, a part of the mind containing ideas and archetypal images shared among humankind that have been transmitted genetically from ancestral humans.

1. Dream images 2. Religious symbols 3. Artistic expressions (such as movie heroes and heroines).

Jung believed that while these images remain unconscious, they influence our dreams and waking thoughts and emotions. It is the collective unconscious, Jung maintained, that explains similarities among cultures in the following three aspects:

Personal Unconscious

Jung's term for an unconscious region of mind comprising a reservoir of the individual's repressed memories and impulses.

Archetypes

Jung's term for the primitive images contained in the collective unconscious that reflect ancestral or universal experiences of human beings and experiences, including images such as an omniscient and all-powerful God, the young hero, and the fertile and nurturing mother figure.

Unconscious

Likened to the large mass of the iceberg lying under the surface of the water containing primitive sexual and aggressive impulses, memories of troubling emotional experiences (for example, traumatizing events), and unacceptable sexual or aggressive wishes or ideas that, according to Freud, can only be brought into consciousness with great difficulty.

Central Traits

More common but less wide-reaching traits. Allport's term for personality characteristics that have a widespread influence on the individual's behavior across situations. The basic building blocks of personality that influence behavior in many situations. (competitiveness, generosity, independence, arrogance, and fearfulness—the kinds of traits you would generally use when describing the general characteristics of other people's behavior.)

The part that corresponds to our moral convictions—our personal beliefs about right and wrong.

Part of the superego that may be available to consciousness:

Personality

Person's unique and relatively stable patterns of psychological characteristics and behavior patterns (such as thinking, emotions, and behavior) that make individuals unique and that account for the consistency of their behavior over time. A composite of the ways in which individuals relate to others and adapt to the demands placed on them by the environment. The relatively stable constellation of psychological characteristics and behavioral patterns that account for our individuality and consistency over time.

Trait

Stable personality characteristic. Relatively enduring personal characteristics.

Psychoticism

Tendencies to be perceived as cold and antisocial. People who are high on this trait are perceived as cold, antisocial, hostile, and insensitive. Those who are low on on this trait are described as warm, sensitive, and concerned about others.

Introversion/Extroversion

Tendencies toward being solitary and reserved on the one end or outgoing and sociable on the other end.

Neuroticism

Tendencies toward emotional instability, anxiety, and worry.

Psychodynamic Theory

The central idea underlying Freud's theory of personality is the belief that a dynamic struggle takes place within the human psyche (mind) between unconscious forces. Remains the most detailed and comprehensive theory of personality yet developed.

unconscious mind

The conflicts of the id, ego, and superego act as a dynamic struggle producing our behavior and take place outside of conscious awareness- on the stage of the:

1. Denial 2. Reaction Formation 3. Rationalization 4. Projection 5. Sublimation 6. Regression 7. Displacement

The seven other defense mechanisms Freud identified other than Repression:

Electra Complex

The term given by some psychodynamic theorists to the form of the Oedipus complex in young girls. Named after a figure in ancient Greek tragedy who avenged her father's death by killing his murderers—her own mother and her mother's lover.

Neo-Freudians

The theorists who followed in Freud's footsteps who placed a lesser emphasis on sexual and aggressive motivations and a greater emphasis on social relationships and the workings of the ego, especially the development of a concept of the self.

Trait Theorists

Theorists who look within the personality to explain behavior. Believe that personality consists of a distinctive set of relatively stable or enduring characteristics or dispositions called traits. They use personality traits to predict how people are likely to behave in different situations and are interested in learning how people differ in their underlying traits. They are also interested in measuring traits and understanding how traits are organized or structured within the personality. Some believe that traits are largely innate or inborn; others argue that traits are largely acquired through experience.

Five Factor Model (FFM)

Theory of traits that identifies the main characteristics that largely account for individual personality differences. The most widely used trait model of personality today. The dominant contemporary trait model of personality, consisting of five broad personality factors: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. (Big Five Model) Isn't so much a new set of personality traits as a consolidation and integration of traits previously identified by Cattell, Eysenck, and other trait theorists. Is useful in predicting many behaviors, including how well students do in college.

1. Gordon Allport 2. Raymond Cattell 3. Hans Eysenck

Three, prominent Trait Theorists:

Conscious

To Freud, the part of the mind corresponding to the state of present awareness. The "tip" of the iceberg—what we are thinking or feeling at any given moment in time.

Preconscious

To Freud, the part of the mind whose contents can be brought into awareness through focused attention. Holds information we've stored from previous life experience or prior learning which can be retrieved from memory and brought into awareness at any time. (For example, my phone number.)

Gordon Allport (1897-1967)

Trait Theorist who believed that personality traits are inherited but are influenced by experience. Believed that personality traits are ordered in a hierarchy of importance from cardinal traits at the highest level through central traits and secondary traits at the lower levels.

Raymond Cattell

Trait Theorist who believed that there are two basic levels of traits: Surface Traits and Source Traits. Constructed a paper-and-pencil personality scale to measure 16 source traits, which he called the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, or 16PF.

Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)

Trait Theorist who constructed a simple model consisting of three traits: Introversion/Extroversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism. Believed that biological differences are responsible for variations in personality traits from person to person. Argued that introverts inherit a nervous system that operates at a higher level of arousal than does that of extraverts. Consequently, introverts require less stimulation to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

1. Carl Rogers and 2. Abraham Maslow

Two humanistic psychologist who believe our personality is the expression of our unique potential as human beings.

1. Neuroticism: Prone to anxiety, worry, guilt, emotional instability versus relaxed, calm, secure, emotionally stable. High neuroticism (low emotional stability) is linked to lower grades and poorer adjustment among adolescents and greater likelihood of depression among college students. 2. Extraversion: Outgoing, friendly, enthusiastic, fun loving versus solitary, shy, serious, reserved 3. Openness to new experiences: Imaginative, curious, intellectual, open to nontraditional values versus conforming, practical, conventional 4. Agreeableness: Sensitive, warm, tolerant, easy to get along with, concerned with other's feelings and needs versus cold, suspicious, hostile, callous. 5. Conscientiousness: Reliable, responsible, self-disciplined, ethical, hard working, ambitious versus disorganized, unreliable, lax, impulsive, careless.

What are the five traits of the Five Factor Model?

Lower level: Neuroticism High level: Extraversion and Agreeableness

What combination of three traits from the Five Factor Model is associated with better mental health?

Agreeableness

What high-level trait of the Five Factor Model is associated with a tendency to be more giving and cooperative, reporting greater satisfaction in their relationships, and tend to drive more safely.

Conscientiousness

What high-level trait of the Five Factor Model is associated with higher grades and with stronger performance motivation (setting goals and pursuing them.)

Neuroticism (lower emotional stability)

What high-level trait of the Five Factor Model tracks to poorer adjustment among adolescents and greater likelihood of depression among college students?

The study of Personality

What study involves efforts to understand our uniqueness as individuals and the characteristics that account for consistencies in our behavior over time?