Psychology Chapter 6

In Pavlov's work with dogs, the psychic secretions were _____________ a. unconditioned responses b. conditioned responses c. unconditioned stimuli d. conditioned stimuli

b. conditioned responses

the person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is called a ___________________ a. teacher b. model c. instructor d. coach

b. model

Which of the following is not an example of a primary reinforcer? a. food b. money c. water d. sex

b. money

a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an organism is a(n) ___________________ a. unconditioned stimulus b. neutral stimulus c. conditioned stimulus d. unconditioned response

b. neutral stimulus

learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that _______________ a. is innate b. occurs as a result of experience c. is found only in humans d. occurs by observing others

b. occurs as a result of experience

Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which reinforcement schedule? a. fixed ratio b. variable ratio c. fixed interval d. variable interval

b. variable ratio

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time

variable interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time has passed

law of effect

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

who proposed observational learning? a. Ivan Pavlov b. John Watson c. Albert Bandura d. B.F Skinner

c. Albert Bandura

which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at some point in the development of a human being? a. child riding a bike b. teen socializing c. infant sucking on a nipple d. toddler walking

c. infant sucking on a nipple

learning

change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

in ________________ the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior. a. associative learning b. observational learning c. operant conditioning d. classical conditioning

d. classical conditioning

classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

latent learning

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

cognitive map

mental picture of the layout of the environment

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

continuous reinforcement

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

rewarding behavior only some of the time

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior

operant conditioning

tends to involve conscious processes

classical conditioning

tends to involve unconscious processes

observational learning

type of learning that occurs by watching others

instinct

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

reflex

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

habituation

when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change

If the sound of your toaster popping up toast causes your mouth to water, what are the UCS, CS, and CR?

The food being toasted is the UCS; the sound of the toaster popping up is the CS; salivating to the sound of the toaster is the CR.

What is the effect of prosocial modeling and antisocial modeling?

Prosocial modeling can prompt others to engage in helpful and healthy behaviors, while antisocial modeling can prompt others to engage in violent, aggressive, and unhealthy behaviors.

reinforcement

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

What is a Skinner box and what is its purpose?

A Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber used to train animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviors, like pressing a lever. When the animals perform the desired behavior, they receive a reward: food or water.

What is the difference between a reflex and a learned behavior?

A reflex is a behavior that humans are born knowing how to do, such as sucking or blushing; these behaviors happen automatically in response to stimuli in the environment. Learned behaviors are things that humans are not born knowing how to do, such as swimming and surfing. Learned behaviors are not automatic; they occur as a result of practice or repeated experience in a situation.

Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning. How are they alike? How do they differ?

Both classical and operant conditioning involve learning by association. In classical conditioning, responses are involuntary and automatic; however, responses are voluntary and learned in operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the stimulus) comes before the behavior; in operant conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the consequence) comes after the behavior. Also, whereas classical conditioning involves an organism forming an association between an involuntary (reflexive) response and a stimulus, operant conditioning involves an organism forming an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

Cara is 17 years old. Cara's mother and father both drink alcohol every night. They tell Cara that drinking is bad and she shouldn't do it. Cara goes to a party where beer is being served. What do you think Cara will do? Why?

Cara is more likely to drink at the party because she has observed her parents drinking regularly. Children tend to follow what a parent does rather than what they say.

What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

In negative reinforcement you are taking away an undesirable stimulus in order to increase the frequency of a certain behavior (e.g., buckling your seat belt stops the annoying beeping sound in your car and increases the likelihood that you will wear your seatbelt). Punishment is designed to reduce a behavior (e.g., you scold your child for running into the street in order to decrease the unsafe behavior.)

Explain how the processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are considered opposites.

In stimulus generalization, an organism responds to new stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, a dog barks when the doorbell rings. He then barks when the oven timer dings because it sounds very similar to the doorbell. On the other hand, stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns a response to a specific stimulus, but does not respond the same way to new stimuli that are similar. In this case, the dog would bark when he hears the doorbell, but he would not bark when he hears the oven timer ding because they sound different; the dog is able to distinguish between the two sounds.

What is shaping and how would you use shaping to teach a dog to roll over?

Shaping is an operant conditioning method in which you reward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. If you want to teach your dog to roll over, you might reward him first when he sits, then when he lies down, and then when he lies down and rolls onto his back. Finally, you would reward him only when he completes the entire sequence: lying down, rolling onto his back, and then continuing to roll over to his other side.

How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

This occurs through the process of acquisition. A human or an animal learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During the acquisition phase, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response. The neutral stimulus is becoming the conditioned stimulus. At the end of the acquisition phase, learning has occurred and the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.

which is the correct order of steps in the modeling process? a. attention, retention, reproduction, motivation b. motivation, attention, reproduction, retention c. attention, motivation, retention, reproduction d. motivation, attention, retention, reproduction

a. attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

two forms of associative learning are ______________ and ____________ a. classical conditioning; operant conditioning b. classical conditioning; Pavlovian conditioning c. operant conditioning; observational learning d. operant conditioning; learning conditioning

a. classical conditioning; operant conditioning

Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is __________________ a. shaping b. extinction c. positive reinforcement d. negative reinforcement

a. shaping

Extinction occurs when__________________ a. the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus b. the unconditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with a conditioned stimulus c. the neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus d. the neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with a conditioned stimulus

a. the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

observational learning

adds social and cognitive layers to all the basic assoicative processes, both conscious and unconscious

higher order conditioning

also, second order conditioning, using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

In Bandura's Bobo doll study, when the children who watched the aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys, they _________________ a. ignored the doll b. played nicely with the doll c. played with tinker toys d. kicked and threw the doll

d. kicked and threw the doll

_____________ is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a behavior a. positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement c. positive punishment d. negative punishment

d. negative punishment

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates_____________ a. higher order conditioning b. acquisition c. stimulus discrimination d. stimulus generalization

d. stimulus generalization

extinction

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

associative learning

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

primary reinforcer

has innate reinforcing qualities, food, water, shelter, sex

secondary reinforcer

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else, money, gold stars, poker chips

punishment

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural, unlearned behavior to a given stimulus

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

model

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior