Psychology Final

Selection Bias

-occurs when participants are assigned to groups in such a way that systematic differences among the groups are present at the beginning of the experiment

experimenter bias

-occurs when researchers preconceived notions or expectations becoming self-fulfilling prophecy and cause the researcher to find what they expect to find.

Applied Research

-research conducted specifically for the purpose of solving practical problems and improving the quality of life

somatic symptom disorders

Disorders in which physical symptoms are present that are due to psychological causes rather than any known medical condition

Histrionic

Individual seeks attention and approval; is overly dramatic, self-centered, shallow, demanding, manipulative, easily bored, and suggestible; craves excitement; often, is attractive and sexually seductive.

Sensorimotor

Infants experience the world through their senses, actions, and body movements. At the end of this stage, toddlers develop the concept of object permanence and can mentally represent objects in their absence. (0 to 2 years)

preterm infants

Infants of this weight born at or before the 37th week

Encoding failure

Information was never stored in memory

Learning by Insight​

The sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent

insight

The sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent

ethnocentrism

The tendency to look at situations from one's own racial or cultural perspective

psychoanalysis

The term Freud used for both his theory of personality and his therapy for the treatment of psychological disorders; the unconscious is the primary focus of psychoanalytic theory.

Task variety

To function well, people need a comfortable amount of variety and stimulation.

risk/resilience model

a perspective that proposes that risk and protective factors interact to produce or protect us from illness

facial-feedback hypothesis

a positive outlook on life

in-group

is a social group with a strong sense of togetherness, from which others are excluded. Members of college fraternities and sororities often exhibit strong in-group feelings

Dissociated control

Subjects respond to a hypnotist's suggestions because hypnosis weakens the influence of the executive control system over other aspects of consciousness.

Displacement

Substituting a less-threatening object or person for the original object of a sexual or aggressive impluse

artificial neural networks

Such networks have proved very useful in computer programs designed to carry out highly specific functions within a limited domain, known as expert systems.

anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an overwhelming, irrational fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self-starvation, and excessive weight loss

bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by repeated and uncontrolled (and often secretive) episodes of binge eating

decay

fading away of memory over time a physiological change in the neurons that recorded the experience

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Background knowledge and experience with reading print

strongly influence how much people learn from reading online text.

psychedelics

substances that distort perception and consciousness distort perceptions of time and space, alter mood, and produce feelings of unreality

over-the-counter drugs

such as antihistamines and decongestants, as well as many herbal preparations, are psychoactive

gastric bypass

the bariatric surgical technique known as gastric bypass results in both weight reduction below the obesity threshold and improvements in weight-related health conditions

contact comfort

the comfort supplied by bodily contact—rather than nourishment that formed the basis of the infant monkey's attachment to its mother.

Ego

the conscious part of personality; carries out daily activities The conscious, rational part of the personality, charged with keeping peace between the superego and the id.

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Paranoid

ParanoidIndividual is highly suspicious, untrusting, guarded, hypersensitive, easily slighted, and lacking in emotion; holds grudges.

permissive-indulgent

Parents in the subcategory permissive-indulgent are warm and supportive

psycholinguistics

The study of how language is acquired, produced, and used and how the sounds and symbols of language are translated into meaning

affective neuroscience

The study of the neurological foundations of emotion

health psychology

The subfield within psychology that is concerned with the psychological factors that contribute to health, illness, and recovery

Severe responses to the death of a loved one

The therapist and client discuss the client's relationship with the deceased person and feelings (such as guilt) that may be associated with the death.

mnemonics

memory devices, and study strategies have been developed over the years to aid memory

euthanasia

mercy killing

pathogens

microorganisms that cause illness disease causing agents

misinformation effect

misleading information that is inadvertently supplied to an eyewitness during the process of an investigator's interview can result in erroneous recollections of the actual event incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Encoding

transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory

Some researchers claim

that racial differences result from genetics. Others argue that poverty, lack of educational opportunities, familiarity with testing situations, and stereotype threat explain these differences.

Recognition

the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact A person simply recognizes something as familiar—a face, a name, a taste, a melody

Creativity

the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems

empathy

the ability to take the perspective of others and to put ourselves in their place.

Empathy

the ability to understand and share the feelings of another

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

kinesthetic senses

the sense, providing information or senses, providing information about the position of the body parts in relation to each other and the movement of the entire body part

restorative theory of sleep

the theory that the function of sleep is to restore the body and mind

conflict theory

the view that as competition increases among social groups for scarce resources, so do prejudice, discrimination, and hatred.

software

learned memory strategies

obesity

BMI over 30

compliance

Conforming to a request or demand

Human Development

disorder: Gender Dysphoria

Hearing and smell

in the temporal lobe.

valence

the degree to which a person values the rewards that are offered

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Bowers

theory of dissociated control

depressive disorders

Disorders characterized by extreme and unwarranted disturbances in emotion or mood.

Hypochondriasis (Hs)

High scorers exhibit an exaggerated concern about their physical health.

Psychopathic deviate (Pd)

High scorers show a disregard for social and moral standards.

Social introversion (S)

High scorers tend to be modest, self-effacing, and shy.

superego (sue-per-EE-go)

The moral system of the personality, which consists of the conscience and the ego ideal

attachment

The strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver

Somniloquy (sleeptalking)

can occur during any sleep stage and is more common in children than adults

Experience

can retard or accelerate motor development, but the sequence of motor milestones is universal.

Achievement tests

measure learning, whereas an aptitude test predicts future performance on a specific task

The components of language

(1) phonemes, (2) morphemes, (3) syntax, (4) semantics, and (5) pragmatics

Estimate the percentages of people older than age 65 in the United States

(94%) Live alone or with a spouse (90%) Have incomes above the poverty level (90%) Interact with family at least once every 2 weeks (89%) Need no help with daily activities (85%) Need no assistive devices (e.g., cane, wheelchair) (60%) Go out to eat at least once every 2 weeks (50%) Attend religious services regularly (50%) Are sexually active

verbal comprehension index

measure verbal skills such as vocabulary.

NREM dreams

occur during NREM sleep, although these are typically less frequent and less memorable than REM dreams

soft science

-if you can get the same outcome 70% percent of the time you are doing stellar

A modest decline

occurs from the 60s to the 80s.

Period of the fetus

9 weeks to birth (38 weeks) Rapid growth and further development of the body structures, organs, and systems.

participant modeling

A behavior therapy in which an appropriate response to a feared stimulus is modeled in graduated steps and the client attempts to imitate the model step-by-step, encouraged and supported by the therapist

proactive coping

Active measures taken in advance of a potentially stressful situation to prevent its occurrence or to minimize its consequences

panic disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurring, unpredictable episodes of overwhelming anxiety, fear, or terror

anxiety

Being concerned about what lies ahead

Hardiness

Commitment to work and personal life; sense of control over outcomes; view stressors as challenges

Anchoring

Decisions are influenced by focusing on a single factor, thereby overestimating its importance.

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. AKA "uppers" speed up activity in the central nervous system, suppress appetite, and can make a person feel more awake, alert, and energetic

grieving process

Finally, many of us have experienced the grieving process—the period of bereavement that follows the death of a loved one and sometimes lingers long after the person has gone

What are the four schedules of reinforcement, and what are their characteristics?

Fixed-ratio​ Variable-ratio​ Fixed-interval​ Variable-interval​ ​

Spearman's g factor

Intelligence consists of a single factor known as g, which represents a general intellectual ability.

Identify the Target Behavior

It must be both observable and measurable, such as the amount of time you spend studying.

Neuro metric analysis

It reveals at normal transactions between brain regions those regions may get her at that normally for several reasons

schemes

Plans of action, based on previous experiences, to be used in similar circumstances

Optimism

Positive expectations for the future

early-morning hours

REM periods are the longest

Virtual Reality Therapy

Recent research suggests that exposing individuals to a feared stimulus via virtual reality therapy can be effective (Breuninger et al., in press; Rauch & Rothbaum, 2016; Reger et al., 2016).

Sublimation

Rechanneling sexual and aggressive energy into pursuits or accomplishments that society considers acceptable or even admirable

Preparation

Searching for information that may help solve the problem

Set Reinforcement Conditions

Set the reinforcement conditions in measurable terms, such as "I will watch a movie after I spend three hours studying." Don't cheat! Reward yourself only when you have fulfilled the reinforcement conditions.

Generalization

Skinner pigeons​

Holmes and Rahe (1967)

Social Readjustment Rating Scale Life events as stressors stressful life events are related to health problems developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure stress by ranking different life events from most to least stressful and assigning a point value to each event

performance/avoidance

Students with a performance/avoidance orientation will measure their performance against that of other students and are motivated to work to the point where they are at least equal to their peers

Social Support

Tangible, emotional support provided by family, friends, other; perceived support may be more important than actual support

id (ID)

The unconscious system of the personality, which contains the life and death instincts and operates on the pleasure principle; source of the libido

Workload

Too much or too little to do can cause people to feel anxious, frustrated, and unrewarded.

Licensed chemical dependency counselor (L.C.D.C.)

Training Educational requirements vary from one state to another Services Provided Treatment and education for substance abuse problems

Robert Rescorla​

What did Rescorla want to prove?​

Physical skills

begin to decline around age 30. Physical changes associated with middle age are a loss of physical vigor and endurance, a need for reading glasses, and the end of reproductive capacity (menopause) in women and a decline in testosterone levels in men. Although younger people tend to do better on mental tasks requiring speed or rote memory, the intellectual performance of adults shows modest gains until the mid-40s.

hardware

brain structures that are involved in memory

psychosurgery

brain surgery performed to alleviate serious psychological disorders are unbearable chronic pain

viral STDs

cannot be treated with antibiotics and are considered to be incurable

As maturation proceeds

controlled motor skills, such as grasping and walking, develop.

Learning theory

suggests that language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia

forget the names of people and objects they have known all their lives as well as how to do everyday tasks such as managing money.

The serial position effect

is the tendency, when recalling a list of items, to remember the items at the beginning of the list (primacy effect) and the items at the end of the list (recency effect) better than items in the middle. People tend to recall material more easily if they are in the same physical location during recall as during the original learning

Groupthink

is the term that social psychologist Irving Janis (1982, 2007) applied to the kind of decision making that is sometimes seen in tightly knit groups

storage

maintaining information

At the preconventional level

moral reasoning is governed by the physical consequences of an act.

esteem needs

need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others needs that enable people to fulfill inner desires the need for respect - both self-respect and respect from others include academic, social, and professional achievements

neonate

newborn baby

Prospective forgetting

not remembering to carry out some intended action

chunking

organizing or grouping separate bits of information into larger units, or chunks

mastery/approach

orientation will study and engage in other behaviors (e.g., attend class) to increase their knowledge and overcome challenges

REM sleep

our most vivid dreams occur during REM sleep

Children from age 6 to puberty

sleep best

maintenance rehearsal

sometimes we repeat information over and over again until we can recall it easily

preconscious

somewhat like long-term memory: it contains all the memories, feelings, experiences, and perceptions that we are not consciously thinking about at the moment but that may be easily brought to consciousness

to record the brains electrical activity

the most widespread technique for understanding brain functions

In a sleep terror

the sleeper awakens in a panicked state with a racing heart

syphilis

Another bacterial STD is syphilis, which can lead to serious mental disorders and death if it is not treated in the early stages of infection

motherese

Parents often use motherese—highly simplified speech with shorter phrases and sentences and simpler vocabulary, which is uttered slowly, at a high pitch, and with exaggerated intonation and much repetition

higher-order conditioning

Pavlov also discovered that a neutral stimulus could become a conditioned stimulus simply by pairing it with a previously acquired conditioned stimulus, a process called higher-order conditioning

phonemes

the basic speech sounds of any language, which form words when combined

hangover

the constellation of symptoms lead by dehydration

dementia

a state of mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect and by altered personality and behavior

dementias

a state of mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect and by altered personality and behavior

Cocaine

a stimulant derived from coca leaves, can be sniffed as a white powder, injected intravenously, or smoked in the form of crack takes away your ability to feel pleasure unless from more cocaine constricts the blood vessels, raises blood pressure, speeds up the heart, and quickens respiration

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

stressor

a stimulus or an event that is capable of producing a stress response

recognition heuristic

a strategy in which the decision-making process terminates as soon as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognized, has also been the subject of much research

matching hypothesis

the tendency to develop relationships with people who are approximately as attractive as we are

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to give more attention to dispositional factors than is appropriate for a situation

social identity

the tendency to join with others to construct a group identity that insulates individual members against a stressor

cortisol

a stress hormone that increases with emotional arousal, in husbands and wives after discussions of positive and negative events in their relationships

nucleus accumbens

a subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction

resolution phase

a tapering-off period, when the body returns to its unaroused state

psychoticism

egocentric, cold, impulsive first dimension is a continuum that represents an individual's link to reality.

EEG

electroencephalogram

satiety center

elicits feeling of fullness and inhibits desire to eat inhibits eating

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging brain-imaging technique allowed psychologists to accumulate a large body of evidence leading to a better understanding of the neurological basis of consciousness.

Learning theorists explained

gender roles as the result of reinforcement and modeling.

lowball technique

getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment

puzzle box

hungry cat was placed in a wooden box with slats, which was called a puzzle box. The box was designed so that the animal had to manipulate a simple mechanism—pressing a pedal or pulling down a loop—to escape and claim a food reward that lay just outside the box

primary appraisal

is an evaluation of the meaning and significance of the situation—whether its effect on one's well-being is positive, irrelevant, or negative

suprachiasmatic nucleus

is the body's biological clock, which regulates circadian rhythms and signals the pineal gland to secrete or suppress secretion of melatonin, a hormone that acts to induce sleep

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

is the diagnosis given to people who experience chronic, excessive worry for a prolonged period of time These people expect the worst. Their excessive anxiety may cause them to feel tense, tired, and irritable and to have difficulty concentrating and sleeping. Other symptoms may include trembling, palpitations, sweating, dizziness, nausea, diarrhea, or frequent urination. This disorder affects twice as many women as men and leads to considerable distress and impairment

halo effect

tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements

state-dependent memory effect.

tendency to recall information better when in the same internal state as when the information was encoded The emotional state that a person was in when she formed a memory affects her ability to recall it.

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

Observational Learning

(social-cognitive learning) Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation

Aerobic exercise

(such as running, swimming, brisk walking, bicycling, rowing, and jumping rope) is exercise that uses the large muscle groups in continuous, repetitive action and increases oxygen intake and breathing and heart rates

imagery

Images can also be helpful in learning or maintaining motor skills. Brain-imaging studies show that, in general, the same brain areas are activated whether a person is performing a given task or mentally rehearsing the same task using imagery

functionalism

-an early school of psychology that was concerned with how mental processes help humans and animals adapt to their environments

variable

-any condition that can be controlled, manipulated, or measured

Neuro scientists

-are guided by the assumption that everything that brain does is ultimately explainable by biological and chemical events taking place within it. -Either throughout the entire brain or in a particular region.

feminine psychology

-began in 1922 in opposition to Freud -revision of psychoanalysis to encompass womanhood and women's roles To Horney, a revision of psychoanalysis to encompass the psychological conflicts inherent in the traditional ideal of womanhood and women's roles. a revision of psychoanalysis to encompass the psychological conflicts inherent in the traditional ideal of womanhood and women's roles

Case Study

-descriptive method using one single individual over a prolonged period of time -traditionally used in the field of medicine, law and psychology -could be done by writing down experiences, video diary, or diary

scientific observation

-empirical investigation structured to answer questions about the world in a systematic and interests objective fashion

The IAT

-measures the strength of association between two concepts. You can imagine how quickly can one pair words like love, joy, peace, things that mean good things

Period of the embryo

3 to 8 weeks Major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop. Period ends when first bone cells appear. At 8 weeks, embryo is about 1 inch long and weighs 1/7 of an ounce.

California Personality Inventory (CPI)

A highly regarded personality test developed especially for typical individuals aged 13 and older. a self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics in normal populations personality measure used for more "normal", less clinical groups than MMPI (common person inventory)

psychoneuroimmunology (sye-ko-NEW-ro-IM-you-NOLL-oh-gee)

A field in which psychologists, biologists, and medical researchers combine their expertise to study the effects of psychological factors on the immune system

Productivity

A finite number of sounds is used to produce an infinite number of unique utterances.

melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness. Melatonin supplements have been found to be helpful for alleviating jet lag in some long-distance travelers

Eleanor Rosch

A leading cognition researcher, Eleanor Rosch, and her colleagues studied concept formation in its natural setting and concluded that in real life, natural concepts (such as fruit, vegetable, and bird) are not clear-cut and systematic

psychosexual stages

A series of stages through which the sexual instinct develops; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone around which conflict arises

schizophrenia (SKIT-soh-FREE-nee-ah)

A severe psychological disorder characterized by loss of contact with reality, hallucinations, delusions, inappropriate or flat affect, some disturbance in thinking, social withdrawal, and/or other bizarre behavior

schizophrenia

A severe psychological disorder characterized by loss of contact with reality, hallucinations, delusions, inappropriate or flat affect, some disturbance in thinking, social withdrawal, and/or other bizarre behavior.

gonorrhea

A sexually transmitted bacterial disease caused by a gonococcus bacterium that causes inflammation of the genital mucous membrane, burning pain when urinating, and a discharge A bacterial STD that usually affects mucous membranes

Cultural transmission

A social environment is required for language learning; it does not develop on its own.

bystander effect

A social factor that affects prosocial behavior: As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the probability that the victim will receive help decreases, and the help, if given, is likely to be delayed.

emotion

A state involving physiological arousal, a cognitive appraisal of the situation that produced the sate, and an outward behavior expressing the state.

emotion

A state involving physiological arousal, a cognitive appraisal of the situation that produced the state, and an outward behavior expressing the state

dementia

A state of mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect and by altered personality and behavior

Stimuli

A stimulus (the plural is stimuli) is any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds

unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning

Arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation

arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation

motive

Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal

Esteem Needs

Need to achieve, to gain competence, to gain respect and recognition from others

neurotic personality

Need to feel better and superior due to low self esteem personalities typified by maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships in Horney's theory a type of personality defined as one that includes the need for constant affirmation combined with hostility and manipulativeness toward others; one of two main themes described by Karen Horney

Belonging and Love Needs

Need to love and be loved; need to affiliate with others and be accepted

Aversion Therapy

Aversion therapy is used to stop a harmful or socially undesirable behavior by pairing it with aversive stimuli such as electric shocks, emetics (drugs that cause nausea and vomiting), or other unpleasant stimuli. Treatment continues until the target behavior loses its appeal and becomes associated with pain or discomfort. For example, alcoholics are sometimes given a nausea-producing substance such as Antabuse, which reacts violently with alcohol and causes a person to retch and vomit until the stomach is empty (Abraham, Knudsen, & Roman, 2011). Aversion therapy is controversial because it involves the intentional infliction of harm on a client.

antibodies

B cells produce proteins called antibodies, which are highly effective in destroying antigens that live in the bloodstream and in the fluid surrounding body tissues

intelligence

An individual's ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles through mental effort

agoraphobia

An intense fear of being in a situation from which escape is not possible or in which help would not be available if one experienced overwhelming anxiety or a panic attack

agoraphobia

An intense fear of being in a situation from which escape is not possible or in which help would not be available if one experienced overwhelming anxiety or a panic attack.

Is the person a danger to self or others?

Another consideration is whether people pose any danger to themselves or others. To be committed to a psychiatric hospital, a person must be judged both mentally ill and a danger to self or others.

working backward

Another heuristic that is effective for solving some problems is working backward, sometimes called the backward search. This approach starts with the solution, a known condition, and works back through the problem. Once the backward search has revealed the steps to be taken and their order, the problem can be solved.

mental set

Another impediment to problem solving is mental set, the tendency to continue to use the same old method even though another approach might be better

achievement motivation

Another is achievement motivation, a social motive that includes the factors that move people to seek success in academic settings.

goal orientation theory

Another social-cognitive theory known as goal orientation theory provides a somewhat different view of achievement motivation. According to this perspective, achievement motivation varies according to which of four goal orientations an individual adopts (Wolters, 2004). Two dimensions define each goal orientation

longitudinal method

Another way is to compare the same individuals at two different points in their lives

What factors affect that learning?​

Attention​ Retention​ Reproduction​ Reinforcement​

Projection

Attributing one's own undesirable traits, thoughts, behavior, or impulses to another

Expectancy theory

Behavior results from expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Employees working harder because they believe that their efforts will be effective and will be noticed by supervisors, and the employees value supervisors' approval

William Stern

German psychologist William Stern (1914) provided an answer. In 1912, he devised a simple formula for calculating an index of intelligence—the intelligence quotient. But, it was American psychologist Lewis M

ego (EE-go)

In Freud's theory, the logical, rational, largely conscious system of personality, which operates according to the reality principle

ego

In Freud's theory, the logical, rational, largely conscious system of personality, which operates according to the reality principle the logical, rational, and realistic part of the personality

Ebbinghaus

In conducting the first experimental studies of learning and memory, he invented the nonsense syllable, used the relearning method as a test of memory, and plotted the curve of forgetting. He discovered that the largest amount of forgetting occurs very quickly and then tapers off.

13.2: Relationship Therapies

In couple therapy, therapists help intimate partners change their behavior and their emotional responses to each other in order to improve their relationships. The goals of family therapy include helping family members improve communication patterns and create more interpersonal understanding and harmony. Group therapy is less expensive than individual therapy, and it gives people opportunities to express their feelings, get feedback from other group members, and give and receive help and emotional support.

prenatal development

In fact, the final stage of prenatal development, or development from conception to birth, begins before the first trimester ends

Interviews

In interviews, the responses to questions are taken to reveal personality characteristics

successful aging

Maintaining one's physical health, mental abilities, social competence, and overall satisfaction with life as one gets older

retrieval failure

Not remembering something one is certain of knowing

hygiene

Measures contributing to cleanliness and good health

flashbulb memories

Memories for shocking, emotion-provoking events that include information about the source from which the information was acquired detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

natural concepts

Most of the concepts we form and use are natural concepts, acquired not from definitions but through everyday perceptions and experiences.

social motives

Motives (such as the needs for affiliation and achievement) that are acquired through experience and interaction with others

Oral

Mouth Weaning Oral gratification from sucking, eating, biting optimism, gullibility, dependency, pessimism, passivity, hostility, sarcasm, aggression

Use Visualization

Much procrastination results from the failure to consider its negative consequences. Visualizing the consequences of not studying, such as trying to get through an exam you haven't adequately prepared for, can be an effective tool for combating procrastination.

endorphins

Near the end of pregnancy, the woman's body begins to prepare for the physical discomfort of birth by increasing the levels of endorphins, the body's natural painkillers, in her system.

those who are quite comfortable with touching

Others are more cheerful less than forming unless suspicious of other people's motives.

Nightmares

occur during REM sleep and are usually remembered in vivid detail

Parasomnias

occur during partial arousal from Stage 4 sleep

tip-of-the-fingers (TOF) phenomenon

occurs in individuals who use sign language to communicate

Passive euthanasia

occurs when a person (typically, a physician) hastens death by not using life support systems or medication that would prolong a patient's life or by withdrawing life support or other treatment that may be keeping a patient alive

activation

To understand each, think about the role of motivation in studying for an exam. In the activation phase, you take the first steps required to achieve your goal of being prepared for the exam.

Licensed professional counselor (L.P.C.)

Training Master's degree; internship in counseling Services Provided Assessment and therapy for normal problems of life; some psychological testing

Licensed marriage and family therapist (L.M.F.T.)

Training Master's degree; internship in couple therapy and family therapy Services Provided Assessment and therapy for relationship problems

Psychiatrist

Training Medical degree (M.D. or O.D.); residency in psychiatry Services Provided Psychotherapy; drug therapy; hospitalization for serious psychological disorders

Yerkes-Dodson law

The principle that performance on tasks is best when the arousal level is appropriate to the difficulty of the task: higher arousal for simple tasks, moderate arousal for tasks of moderate difficulty, and lower arousal for complex tasks

accommodation

The process by which existing schemes are modified and new schemes are created to incorporate new objects, events, experience, or information

accommodation

The process by which existing schemes are modified and new schemes are created to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, or information

assimilation

The process by which new objects, events, experiences, or information is incorporated into existing schemes

retrieval

The process of bringing to mind information that has been stored in memory

storage

The process of keeping or maintaining information in memory

socialization

The process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values

encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory

artificial intelligence

The programming of computer system to simulate human thanking solving problems and in making judgments and decisions

artificial intelligence

The programming of computer systems to simulate human thinking in solving problems and in making judgments and decisions

metabolic rate

The rate at which the body burns calories to produce energy

object permanence

The realization that objects continue to exist, even when they can no longer be perceived

infantile amnesia

The relative inability of older children and adults to recall events from the first few years of life the inability to remember events from early childhood

behavioral assessment

Using an observational technique known as behavioral assessment, psychologists can count and record the frequency of particular behaviors This method is often used in behavior modification programs in settings such as psychiatric hospitals, where psychologists may chart the progress of people with psychological disorders toward reducing aggressive acts or other undesirable behaviors

During a typical night of sleep

a person goes through about five sleep cycles, each lasting about 90 minutes

projective test

a personality test in which people respond to inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences by projecting their inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materials

token economy

a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a prolonged and severe stress reaction to a catastrophic event or to severe, chronic stress, such as that experienced by soldiers engaged in combat (North & Surris, 2012).

long term memory

permanent or relatively permanent storage capacity: virtually unlimited duration: from minutes to a lifetime

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity ADHD a disorder characterized by restlessness, inattentiveness, and impulsivity

source memory

a recollection of the circumstances in which you formed a memory

hypothalamus

acts as a liaison between the body and the rest of the brain, releasing at least seven different hormones to the pituitary gland, which in turn releases hormones into the bloodstream influencing growth and sex.

Terman

adapted Binet's test for use in the United States and adopted Stern's "intelligence quotient" or "IQ" as the scoring system for the new test

intelligence quotient (IQ)

an index of intelligence, originally derived by dividing mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100, but now derived by comparing an individual's score with the scores of others of the same age

heritability

an index of the degree to which a characteristic is estimated to be influenced by heredity

pelvic inflammatory disease

an infection of the female reproductive tract that can cause infertility.

living things

animals are a subset of this

Anal

anus toilet training gratification from expelling and withholding feces excessive cleanliness orderliness, stinginess, messiness, rebelliousness, destructiveness

retrieval cue

any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieving a particular memory any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieving particular information from long term memory

Withdrawal symptoms

appear when the drug is discontinued and disappear when the drug is taken again

neurons

are biochemical electrical generators neuroscientist have found ways to record the nerve signals coming from a single neuron as a response to some event.

Sleep deprivation

can lead to lapses in concentration and emotional irritability

intellectual tools that we use to make sense of the world

reasoning, imagery, and concepts

componential intelligence

refers to the mental abilities most closely related to success on conventional IQ and achievement tests. He claims that traditional IQ tests measure only componential, or analytical, intelligence.

social cognition

refers to the ways in which people typically process social information

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

The babies of women who have chronic conditions

such as diabetes may experience retardation or acceleration of fetal growth (Moore, 2012). And when the mother has a viral disease such as rubella, chicken pox, or HIV, she may deliver an infant with physical and behavioral abnormalities (Gowen, 2011).

Encoding failure

happens when an item is perceived as having been forgotten but, in fact, was never stored in memory

Retroactive interference

happens when new learning interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

treatment resistant patients

have path of physiological causes for their behavioral distress, which can now be recognized psychology for a long time.

psychological researchers

have returned to the study of consciousness, in examining physiological rhythms such as sleep and wakefulness cycles as well as altered states of consciousness (changes in awareness produced by sleep, meditation, hypnosis, or drugs)

Research examining the effects of sleep deprivation on verbal learning

have shown that sleep deprivation may lead to suppression of neurological activity in the temporal lobes.

Hallucinogens

including marijuana, LSD, and MDMA—can alter and distort perceptions of time and space, alter mood, produce feelings of unreality, and cause hallucinations.

Emotional intelligence

the ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday life

impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

Weber's Law

the law, stating the just noticeable difference for all of the senses depends on the portion or percentage of change and the stimulus, rather than on a fixed amount of change.

gestational age

the length of the mother's pregnancy

anchoring

Overestimation of the importance of a factor by focusing on it to the exclusion of other relevant factors

Framing

Potential gains and losses associated with alternatives are emphasized and influence the decision.

Lazarus's cognitive theory

Primary appraisal (evaluation of stressor), followed by secondary appraisal (evaluation of resources and options)

Beware of Preparation Overkill

Procrastinators may actually spend hours preparing for a task rather than working on the task itself. For example, they may gather enough library materials to write a book rather than a five-page term paper. This enables them to postpone writing the paper.

feeding center

Stimulating the feeding center causes animals to eat even when they are full (Delgado & Anand, 1953). And when the feeding center is destroyed, animals initially refuse to eat

approach-avoidance conflict

involves a single choice that has both desirable and undesirable features

Psychological drug dependence

involves an intense craving for the drug's pleasurable effects.

analogy heuristic

involves comparing a problem to others you have encountered in the past. The idea is that if a particular strategy worked with similar problems in the past, it will be effective for solving a new one.

elaborative rehearsal

involves relating new information to something you already know

Postconventional moral reasoning

involves weighing moral alternatives and realizing that laws may conflict with basic human rights.

facial-feedback hypothesis

The idea that the muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions produce the corresponding emotions (for example, smiling makes one feel happy)

lymphocytes

The key components of the immune system are white blood cells which include B cells and T cells

conditioned response (CR)

The learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus

brainwave pattern

is known as an electro in-settler gram or eg it represents the total activity of the neurons in the cortex.

collective unconscious

the most inaccessible layer of the unconscious, contains the universal experiences of humankind such as what daily life was like when humans lived in caves Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements Jung's name for the memories shared by all members of the human species

anchoring

the notion that focusing on a single factor magnifies the importance of that factor relative to others that are relevant to a decision.

emerging adulthood

the period from the late teens to early 20s when individuals explore options prior to committing to adult roles

Operant Conditioning

the process through which consequences increase or decrease the frequency of a behavior

transduction

the process through which sensory receptors convert the sensory stimulation into neural impulses

comparative psychology

the subfield that studies animal behavior and cognition

Crowding

the subjective judgment that there are too many people in a confined space—has been linked to aggression

insight

the sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

drug tolerance

the tendency for larger doses of a drug to be required over time to achieve the same effect

problem solving

the thoughts and actions required to achieve a desired goal

Cognitive Processes​

thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations

neuroticism

third dimension describes emotional stability, with highly stable people at one end and anxious, irritable people at the other.

Older adults

typically have shorter total sleep time, more awakenings, and substantially less slow-wave sleep

The information-processing approach

uses the computer as an analogy to describe human cognition. It conceptualizes memory as involving the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Context

-can mislead your perception and judgement

delusion

A false belief, not generally shared by others in the culture

psychiatrist

A mental health professional who is a medical doctor

Safety Needs

Need for safety and security

Unconditioned Responses​

an unlearned response ex: salivation to food

retrieval

bringing stored material to mind

illicit

denotes psychoactive drugs that are illegal

sleep hygiene

practices that a patient associates with sleep

prospective forgetting

Not remembering to carry out some intended action

Artificial neural networks

(ANNs) are used to simulate human thinking. They process information like human experts and learn from experience. ANNs are the basis for expert systems, computer programs that do the work of human decision makers.

Neural Transmitters

-chemical substances involved in the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another -specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons -how messages travels across synapses; neural transmitters are chemical messages;Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptors in the next neuron.

schedule of reinforcement

A systematic process for administering reinforcement

self-actualization

Developing to one's fullest potential

Students with a performance/avoidance orientation will measure their performance against that of other students and are motivated to work to the point where they are at least equal to their peers

Finally, those who have a performance/approach orientation try to surpass the performance of their peers in an attempt to enhance their own sense of self-worth. Research indicates that the performance/approach orientation is more strongly associated with high grades than any of the others

T cells

For defeating harmful foreign invaders that have taken up residence inside the body's cells, however, T cells are critically important.

body mass index

Health care professionals classify individuals' body weights using a measure of weight relative to height called the body mass index (BMI). A BMI that is less than 18.5 is considered underweight, whereas one in excess of 25 is classified as overweight. To calculate your BMI, use this formula or search online for a BMI calculator. BMI = [Weight in pounds ÷ (height in inches × height​ in inches)] × 703

postconventional level

Kohlberg's highest of moral development, in which moral reasoning involves weighing moral alternatives; "right" is whatever furthers basic human rights

Fixed-Interval Schedule

On a fixed-interval (FI) schedule, a specific period of time must pass before a response is reinforced. response rate: Lowest response rate Pattern of Responses: Long pause after reinforcement, followed by gradual acceleration. Resistance to Extinction: The longer the interval, the more resistance to extinction.

Coping

Problem-focused coping, directed toward stress; emotion-focused coping, directed toward the emotional response to the stressor; proactive coping, actions taken to prevent future stress

Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

The pattern of disorganized/disoriented attachment (seen in 5 to 10% of American infants) is the most puzzling and apparently the least secure pattern. When reunited with the mother, the infant with this pattern of attachment exhibits contradictory and disoriented responses. Rather than looking at the mother while being held, the child may purposely look away or approach the mother with an expressionless or depressed demeanor. Also characteristic are a dazed and vacant facial expression and a peculiar, frozen posture after being calmed by the mother.

self-efficacy

The perception a person has of his or her ability to perform competently whatever is attempted

period of the embryo

The second stage when the major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop. Lasting from week 3 through week 8, this period ends when the first bone cells form. Only 1 inch long and weighing 1/7 of an ounce, the embryo already resembles a human being, with limbs, fingers, toes, and many internal organs that have begun to function.

unmarried

What has increased is the number of births to unmarried adolescent mothers. In the 1960s, about 80% of teen mothers were married, compared with only 20% today

Is the behavior considered strange within the person's own culture?

What is considered abnormal in one culture is not necessarily considered so in another. For instance, in some cultures, it is normal for women to appear in public bare breasted, but it would be abnormal for a female executive in an industrialized culture to go to work that way.

controlled substances

When psychoactive drugs, such as antidepressants, are approved for medical use

participant modeling

a behavior therapy in which an appropriate response to a feared stimulus is modeled in graduated steps and the client attempts to imitate the model step-by-step, encouraged and supported by the therapist

The brain itself

a biochemical drug factory that manufactures opiate like molecules.

Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT)

a biological therapy in which an electric current is passed through the right hemisphere of the brain; usually reserved for patients with severe depression who are suicidal

increases a person's chances of developing several chronic diseases

a condition that impairs the blood's ability to deliver oxygen to the body's organs

Persuasion

a deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes and/or the behavior of another person

genital herpes

a disease that can be acquired through either intercourse or oral sex a viral STD

disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

a disorder in which children are highly irritable and have frequent outbursts of temper that interfere with social and academic functioning

person-centered therapy

a nondirective insight therapy based on the work of Carl Rogers in which the client does all the talking and the therapist listens therapy centering on the client's goals and ways of solving problems an approach to therapy that assumes all individuals have a tendency toward growth and that this growth can be facilitated by acceptance and genuine reactions from the therapist

inventory

a paper-and-pencil test with questions about a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which measures several dimensions of personality and can be scored according to a standard procedure

confederates

allies; persons who share a common purpose

sarcopenia

an age-related process in which the muscles deteriorate

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

an anxiety disorder in which a person has recurrent obsessions or compulsions, or both.

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person recurring, unpredictable episodes of overwhelming anxiety, fear, or terror

Personal space

an area surrounding each individual, much like an invisible bubble, that the person considers part of himself or herself and uses to regulate the closeness of interactions with others.

Concepts

are categories that allow us to quickly comprehend information.

Freud

claimed that dreams carry hidden meanings and function to satisfy unconscious sexual and aggressive desires He claimed that the manifest content of dreams differs from their latent content

John Watson and Emotional Conditioning

claimed that the influence of environmental factors could explain nearly all variations in human behavior

restorative theory of sleep

claims that being awake causes stress on the body and the brain; repairs are made during sleep.

Gardner

claims that there are eight kinds of intelligence, and Sternberg's triarchic theory proposed that three types exist.

ecological relevance

classical conditioning and neutral stimulus must have some connection to the unconditioned stimulus

What is the law of effect?​

consequence, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened. Responses closely followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Piaget's, Vygotsky's, and Kohlberg's theories

deal with the intellectual aspects of development. Moral reasoning, of course, involves reasoning about the social world, but it doesn't address the process through which individuals come to feel a part of the families, neighborhoods, and cultures in which they live

Mexican culture

death is discussed frequently and is even celebrated on the Day of the Dead people's deaths are seen as reflections of their lives. As a result, their behavior during the dying process is assumed to reveal much about what kind of people they were.

memory strategies

deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering eg. chunking

executive control

enable children who are learning two languages to suppress impulsive responses to verbal tasks and, as a result, think more carefully about them. Interestingly, too, improvement in executive control skills is associated with second-language instruction among monolingual children

Facilitation

ex: Improve performance when playing sport by imitating the techniques of professional athletes​

biomedical model

explains illness exclusively in terms of biological factors the Western European/North American tradition that views health as the absence of disease A perspective that explains illness solely in terms of biological factors. The viewpoint that illness can be explained on the basis of aberrant somatic processes and that psychological and social processes are largely independent of the disease process; the dominant model in medical practice until recently.

consequences of being touched deprived

extremely significant, not only from a sense of security and emotional well being.

Fatuous love

has passion and commitment components but lacks intimacy. This type of love can be exemplified by a whirlwind courtship and marriage in which a commitment is motivated largely by passion, without the stabilizing influence of intimacy.

speech perception

in the frontal

top down processing

information processing in which previous experiences and conceptual knowledge are applied to recognize the whole perception and this easily identify is when you have seen it before, and your senses don't have to get every single piece to put the pieces together.

Francis Galton (1874)

initiated this debate, which has raged for more than 100 years, and coined the term the nature-nurture debate

People with extensive background knowledge (expertise)

introduce fewer distortions into reconstructive memory tasks than nonexperts do

Systematic processes

involve considering all possible options prior to making a decision.

Episodes

last 5 to 15 minutes, and then the person falls back to sleep

Lewis Terman (1925)

launched a longitudinal study, now a classic, in which 1,528 gifted students were selected and measured at different ages throughout their lives.

When the brain receives information from more than one source at a time

learning from one or all of the sources may be compromised.

William James

likened consciousness to a flowing stream (the stream of consciousness) that seems to be under our control at some times but not at others

interpersonal aspects of emotional intelligence

make up the second set of components

The parts of the brain that are involved in decision making and self-control

mature between the late teens and early 20s.

Potentiate

means "to make potent, or to strengthen."

The model

proposes that information flows through a three-part system—sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Temperament

refers to an individual's behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment. The three temperament types identified by Thomas, Chess, and Birch are easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. Current research indicates that dimensions of temperament include activity level, sociability, inhibition, negative emotionality, and effortful control.

intuition

refers to rapidly formed judgments based on "gut feeling" or "instincts." "go with your gut feeling"

Constitutional vulnerability

refers to the aspects of an individual's congenital (at birth) risk of developing schizophrenia that are attributable to factors within the person

Physical drug dependence

results from the body's natural ability to protect itself against harmful substances by developing a drug tolerance

cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex Excessive levels of the stress hormone

frustration-aggression hypothesis

suggests that frustration usually produces aggression

Sensory adaptation

the process in which sensory receptors grow accustomed to constant unchanging levels of stimuli over time.

Social cognition

the process of attending to, interpreting, and remembering information about ourselves and others.

retrograde amnesia

typically involves episodic rather than semantic memories, however, so people who have it usually have a clear understanding of the world around them an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Older adults

typically retire from work. Many lose a spouse and may alter their living arrangements. In Western societies, most elders prefer to live on their own. In other parts of the world, it is more common for elders to live with family members.

unconditional positive regard

unqualified caring and nonjudgmental acceptance of another

Continuity

we tend to perceive figures or objects as belonging together if they appear to form a continuous pattern.

neuro transmitters

we think that some neural transmitters are important for learning and animals and humans and by knowing what these chemicals are We are able to mimic how the brain talks to itself and we can coax the brain into either for getting an experience or we can make the brain actually remember better by stimulating some of these chemical systems

Period of the Zygote

weeks 1-2 Zygote attaches to the uterine lining. At 2 weeks, zygote is the size of the period at the end of this sentence.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

were based on how much an individual deviated from the average score for adults

validity

The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

reliability

The ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same people are tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative form of the test

divergent thinking

The ability to produce multiple ideas, answers, or solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution

creativity

The ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems

amygdala

The amygdala is part of the limbic system and is closely associated with fear (LeDoux, 2000). Information comes to the amygdala directly from all five of the senses and is acted on immediately, without initial involvement of the primary "thinking" area of the brain, the cortex. But, as with reflex actions, the cortex does become involved as soon as it "catches up" with the amygdala (LeDoux, 2000). Once it does so, the cortex tempers the amygdala's fear response with its interpretation of the fear-provoking situation. The ability of the cortex to control the amygdala's fear, often through revision of fear-inducing memories, is also vital to our ability to overcome previously learned fears (LeDoux & Droyère, 2011). Thus, when people manage to conquer, say, the fear associated with taking an important exam, they can thank their cortex's ability to regulate the amygdala.

The Health-Stress Connection

The biomedical model focuses on illness rather than on health and explains illness in terms of biological factors. The biopsychosocial model focuses on health as well as on illness and holds that both are determined by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Health psychologists use the biopsychosocial model to understand and influence the contributions of psychological factors to communication between health care professionals and patients, pain management, the influence of psychological and behavioral factors on specific diseases, gender and group differences in health, and health-related lifestyle behaviors. They have found that stress plays a role in all of these domains. When a stressor occurs, the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to oppose it or flee from it (the fight-or-flight response). Prolonged stress causes the body to try to maintain the fight-or-flight response over a long period. The biochemicals associated with the fight-or-flight response can make the body more vulnerable to illness through their direct actions on tissues. The fight-or-flight response also influences health indirectly because it suppresses the immune system. The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) proposed by Selye is the predictable sequence of reactions that organisms show in response to stressors. It consists of the alarm stage, the resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage. Lazarus maintains that when confronted with a potentially stressful event, a person engages in a cognitive appraisal process consisting of (1) a primary appraisal, to evaluate the relevance of the situation to one's well-being (whether it will be positive, irrelevant, or negative), and (2) a secondary appraisal, to evaluate one's resources and determine how to cope with the stressor. Coping strategies help us overcome stress. Problem-focused coping is a direct response aimed at reducing, modifying, or eliminating the source of stress; emotion-focused coping involves reappraising a stressor to reduce its emotional impact. Other factors that promote resilience include optimism, hardiness, social involvement, social support, and perceived control.

Hunger

The brain's pleasure system influences eating behavior. The lateral hypothalamus (LH) signals us to eat when we are hungry, and the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) motivates us to stop eating when we are full. Other internal hunger signals are low blood glucose levels and high insulin levels. Some satiety signals are high blood glucose levels and the presence in the blood of other satiety substances (such as CCK) that are secreted by the gastrointestinal tract during digestion. External hunger cues, such as the taste, smell, and appearance of food; eating with other people; and the time of day can cause people to eat more food than they actually need. Variations in body weight are influenced by genes, hormones, metabolic rate, activity level, number of fat cells, and eating habits. Fat-cell theory claims that individuals who are overweight have more fat cells in their bodies. Set point theory suggests that an internal homeostatic system functions to maintain body weight by adjusting appetite and metabolic rate. Some people who are obese cannot lose weight and must undergo gastric bypass surgery to attain a healthy body weight. Weight-loss programs for such individuals and those for children must be carefully supervised by health professionals. To be effective, a weight-loss strategy must include both calorie reduction and exercise. The symptoms of anorexia nervosa are an overwhelming, irrational fear of being fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self-starvation, and excessive weight loss. It damages the heart and other organs and can be fatal. The symptoms of bulimia nervosa are repeated and uncontrolled episodes of binge eating, usually followed by purging. Intentional vomiting can cause dental and digestive problems for people who have bulimia nervosa. Both anorexia and nervosa are more common in females than in males, are difficult to treat, and often occur along with other psychiatric disorders.

Representativeness heuristic

The decision is based on how closely an object or situation resembles or matches an existing prototype.

intrinsic motivation

The desire to behave in a certain way because it is enjoyable or satisfying in and of itself

extrinsic motivation

The desire to behave in a certain way to gain some external reward or to avoid some undesirable consequence

sexual orientation

The direction of one's sexual interest—toward members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), toward one's own sex (homosexuality), or toward both sexes (bisexuality)

Children at the preoperational stage

(ages 2 to 6 years) are increasingly able to use symbols, but they exhibit egocentrism.

How many disciplines are there including psychology?

- about 20

The molar level of analysis

-Large units of behavior EX: violent behavior or sexual attraction -research investigate large units of behavior of the whole person and complex situations and this kind of analysis -cultural background and social experiences must also be factored in. -study violent behavior, sexual attraction, work on moral and productivity, patient therapist interactions

nature

-a biological predisposition for the psychological disorders

control group

-a group exposed to the same experimental environment as the experimental group but is not given the independent variable or treatment. Instead they receive a placebo

experimental group

-a group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable or treatment

Survey

-a method in which researchers use interviews or questionnaires to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people

Sample

-a part of a population that is selected and studied in order to reach conclusions about the entire population. (the sample would be woman between the ages 45-65 the age of menopause.)

nurture

-a psychological environment that fosters these disorders

gives a human behavior

-constant flow of nerve impulses and transmitted chemicals throughout our body

Situational Factors

-external things such as sensory stimulation rewards are the actions of other people are known as situational factors they com from the outside, from the environment in which your behavior takes place.

Psychological Perspectives

-general points of view used for explaining people's behavior and thinking whether normal or abnormal

Disposition Factos

-genetic makeup personality traits attitudes and mental state are some of the personal factors involved in involved in behavior. -They're known as the positional factors internal characteristics and potentials inside you.

The brain

-is an integral part of the nervous system and it works in a holistic way with all its parts, interacting, although some regions are specialized for getting particular jobs done in the most efficient way. -controls behavior but behavior also feeds back information to influence brain.

Sensation

-is the process through which senses, pick up visual, auditory and other sensory stimuli

1890

-may stand as the most significant date psychologies you that's when William James published what many consider to be the most important psychological texts of all time. Principles of Psychology

Dependent Variable

-measured at the end of the experiment and is presumed to vary (increase or decrease) as a result of the manipulations of the independent variable [anger]

hard science

-more based on chemistry -done in a lab -results are relatively accurate 90-99% of the time

The Learning Perspective

-psychological disorders are not symptoms of an underlying disorder; the behavioral symptoms ARE the disorder. Get rid of the symptoms (the abnormal behavior) and the problem is solved.

William James

-published what many consider to be the most important psychological texts of all time. Principles of Psychology. -James was a professor of psychology at Harvard University, where he also studied medicine and taught physiology. -was interested in all the ways in which people interact with and adapt to their environment. -found a place in psychology for human consciousness emotions, the self personal values and religion. -they rejected James's ideas as unscientific and so on.

Basic Research

-research done to advance the knowledge rather then for practical application

Naturalistic Observation

-research method in which the researcher observes and records behavior in its natural setting, without attempting to influence or control it

Typically the micro level is used by psychologists who

-study things like the role of the brain in memory, for instance, or hormones in sexual behavior

Cognitive Perspective

-suggests that faulty thinking or distorted perceptions can contribute to some types of psychological disorders. Example; negative thinking is intimately involved in depression and anxiety. Treatment is aimed at changing the thinking and perceptions, which presumably will change behavior.

population

-the entire group of interest to researchers and to which they wish to generalize their findings the group from which the sample is selected. (Example if you were to do a study about menopause the population would be females, because the research could impact decisions about both young women who are beginning ministration through women post menopause.)

structuralism

-the first formal school of psychology, aimed at analyzing the basic elements, or structure of conscious mental experience through the use of introspection

most psychologists operate on the next level

-the molecular level of analysis which studies somewhat larger units observable behavior. -such as the speed of reacting to a simple stimulus

experimental method

-the only research method used to identify cause and effect relationships -tests a hypothesis

Scientific Method

-the orderly systematic procedures that researches follow as they identify research problem, design a study to investigate the problem, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions and communicate their findings

Critical thinking

-the process of objectively evaluating claims, propositions, or conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from the evidence presented -1 do not automatically accept and believe what you hear or read -2 carefully analyze and evaluate the evidence and the reasoning presented -3 recognize manipulative, emotional appeals, spot unsupported assumptions, and detect faulty logic -4 be willing to suspend judgment, do not make snap judgments, gather and consider the most relevant and up to date information on all sides of an issue before taking a position -5 be willing to abandon or modify prior judgments, including deeply held beliefs

Psychodynamic Perspective

-this perspective maintains that psychological disorders stem from early childhood experiences and unresolved, unconscious conflicts, usually of a sexual or aggressive nature. The cause assumed by this approach also suggests the cure-psychoanalysis- which Freud developed to uncover and resolve such unconscious conflicts.

reliability

-this refers to the consistency of a test, tested and retested looking for consistent results

Random Assingment

-this us used to control selection bias, as means of selecting participants by using a chance procedure (draw straws out of a hat)

prediction

-when researches can specify the conditions under which a behavior or event is likely to occur -

independent variables

-when the researcher manipulates in order to determine whether they cause change in another behavior or condition. Also known as the treatment [alcohol]

5 perspectives

1 biological perspective 2 Psychodynamic Perspective 3 The Learning Perspective 4 Cognitive Perspective 5

The four most important parts of the limbic system

1) Amygdala 2) Hippocampus 3)Hpyothalamus 4) Towns

Intrinsic motivation

A child reads two books each week to avoid losing TV privileges.

mental age

A child's mental age was based on the number of items she or he got right as compared with the average number right for children of various ages. In other words, if a child's score equaled the average for 8-year-olds, the child was assigned a mental age of 8, regardless of her or his chronological age

chunk

A chunk is an easily identifiable unit, such as a syllable, a word, an acronym, or a number

situation-trait debate

A discussion among theorists about the relative influence of traits and situations on personality

situation-trait debate

A discussion among theorists about the relative influences of traits and situations on personality an ongoing discussion among psychologists about the relative importance of factors within the situation and factors within the person in accounting for behavior

disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD)

A disorder in which children are highly irritable and have frequent outbursts of temper that interfere with social and academic functioning

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

A dissociative disorder in which two or more distinct, unique personalities occur in the same person, and there is severe memory disruption concerning personal information about the other personalities

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

A dissociative disorder in which two or more distinct, unique personalities occur in the same person, and there is severe memory disruption concerning personal information about the other personalities.

moral injury

A feeling of being haunted by what you did or what you didn't do to other people, commonly found in people with PTSD. Since we all have moral systems, if you break this, it can lead to a psychological injury that can result in PTSD. perpetrating, failing to prevent, bearing witness to, or learning about acts that transgress deeply held moral beliefs and expectations

Psychoneuroimmunology

A field in which psychologists, biologists, and medical researchers combine their expertise to study the effects of psychological factors n the immune system

obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

five-factor model

A model that describes personality using five broad dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of personality traits

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder in which manic episodes alternate with periods of depression, usually with relatively normal periods in between

bipolar disorders

A mood disorder in which manic episodes alternate with periods of depression, usually with relatively normal periods in between.

genital warts

A more serious viral STD is genital warts caused by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV)

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of tiny structures in the brain's hypothalamus that control the timing of circadian rhythms; the biological clock

inventory

A paper-and-pencil test with questions about a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which measures several dimensions of personality and can be scored according to a standard procedure

hippocampal region

A part of the limbic system, which includes the hippocampus itself and the underlying cortical areas, involved in the formation of semantic memories

amnesia

A partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological cause

critical period

A period so important to development that a harmful environmental influence at that time can keep a bodily structure from developing normally or can impair later intellectual or social development

Extrinsic motivation

A person agrees to donate a large sum of money to a university for the construction of a building, provided it will bear the family name.

Intrinsic motivation

A person anonymously donates a large sum of money to a university to fund scholarships for deserving students.

Models

A person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated

transgendered

A person who is transgendered has a gender identity that is the opposite of his or her biological sex. Thus, the person has a strong desire to be the opposite sex. Some studies suggest that transgendered individuals may have been exposed to atypical amounts of androgens in the womb (Lippa, 2005). But most do not have such histories. Moreover, most children who express a desire to be the opposite sex no longer do so after puberty (Wallien & Cohen-Kettenis, 2008). Thus, the origin of transgender remains a mystery.

trait

A personal characteristic that is stable across situations and is used to describe or explain personality

projective test

A personality test in which people respond to inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences by projecting their inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materials

biopsychosocial model

A perspective that focuses on health as well as illness and holds that both are determined by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors

risk/resilience model

A perspective that proposes that risk and protective factors interact to produce or protect us from illness

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?​

A primary reinforcer is one that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning A secondary reinforcer is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers

unconditioned response (UR)

A response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning

fight-or-flight response

A response to stress in which the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine glands prepare the body to fight or flee

heuristic (yur-RIS-tik)

A rule of thumb that is derived from experience and used in decision making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness

psychosexual stages

A series of stages through which the sexual instinct develops; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone around which conflict arises. Each stage centers on a particular part of the body that provides pleasurable sensations (an erogenous zone) and around which a conflict arises

scaffolding

A type of instruction in which an adult adjusts the amount of guidance provided to match a child's present level of ability

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated to increase or decrease the frequency of an existing response or to shape an entirely new response

classical conditioning

A type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

A type of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, paralysis, fast and irregular heart and respiration rates, increased brain-wave activity, and vivid dreams

eidetic imagery

A very small proportion of individuals, most of them children, have an exceptional ability to extend the amount of time that an image is present in sensory memory photographic memory the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more

operant

A voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A widely used personality test based on Jungian types. a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types psychological test that identifies individuals' preferences for source of energy, means of information gathering, way of decision making, and lifestyle, providing information for team building and leadership development

Trust versus Mistrust

According to Erikson's view, the foundations of adult personality are laid in four childhood stages. During the first stage, basic trust versus basic mistrust, infants (birth to 1 year) develop a sense of trust or mistrust depending on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection they receive from the mother or primary caregiver. Erikson (1980) considered "basic trust as the cornerstone of a healthy personality" (p. 58). infants learn to trust or mistrust depending on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection provided by parents or caregivers.

learning perspective

According to the learning perspective, psychological disorders are thought to be learned and sustained in the same way as any other behavior. According to this view, people who exhibit abnormal behavior either are victims of faulty learning or have failed to learn appropriate patterns of thinking and acting. Behavior therapists use the learning principles of classical and operant conditioning to eliminate distressing behavior and to establish new, more appropriate behavior in its place. Causes: Abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are learned and sustained like any other behaviors, or there is a failure to learn appropriate behaviors Treatment: Use classical and operant conditioning and modeling to extinguish abnormal behavior and to increase adaptive behavior Behavior therapy Behavior modification

Explaining Motivation

Activation is the component of motivation in which an individual takes the first steps toward a goal. Persistence is the component of motivation that enables a person to continue to work toward the goal even when he or she encounters obstacles. The intensity component of motivation refers to the energy and attention a person must employ to reach a goal. Primary drives are unlearned biological motives, such as thirst and hunger. Social motives are learned from experience and interactions with others. With intrinsic motivation, an act is performed because it is satisfying or pleasurable. With extrinsic motivation, an act is performed to gain a reward or avert an undesirable consequence. Drive-reduction theory suggests that a biological need creates an unpleasant state of emotional arousal that compels the organism to engage in behavior that will reduce the arousal level. Arousal theory suggests that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Behavioral techniques such as reinforcement and goal setting are used by industrial-organizational psychologists to enhance workers' motivation. Expectancy theory is a social-cognitive theory that focuses on workers' beliefs about the effectiveness and value of their efforts. Two other social-cognitive theories, need for achievement theory and goal orientation theory, help to explain achievement motivation. According to Maslow, higher needs cannot be addressed until lower needs are met. Lower needs include both physiological needs (e.g., for food) and the need for safety. Once these are satisfied, behavior can be motivated by higher needs, such as the needs for belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

Factors that stimulate eating

Activity in lateral hypothalamus Low blood levels of glucose Increase in insulin Stomach contractions Empty stomach Appetizing smell, taste, or appearance of food Acquired food preferences Being around others who are eating Foods high in fat and sugar Learned eating habits Reaction to boredom, stress, unpleasant emotional state

Factors that inhibit eating

Activity in ventromedial hypothalamus Raised blood glucose levels Distended (full) stomach CCK (hormone that acts as satiety signal) Sensory-specific satiety Unappetizing smell, taste, or appearance of food Acquired taste aversions Learned eating habits Desire to be thin Reaction to stress, unpleasant emotional state

Acculturative Stress

Adjusting to life in a new culture can be extremely stressful, a phenomenon that researchers call acculturative stress (Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987). Some theorists suggest that immigrants who develop an integration orientation, the belief that they will be able to fit into the social structure of the new culture while retaining links to their home cultures, are well equipped to manage the stresses that go along with transitioning from one culture to another (Motti-Stafanidi, Berry, Chryssochoou, Sam, & Phinney, 2012). Research shows that immigrants with an integration orientation are more satisfied with their lives than those who adopt a different way of thinking about the immigration experience, such as turning completely away from their culture of origin (Peeters & Oerlemans, 2009). Thus, cultural psychologists suggest that schools and other institutions encourage immigrants to maintain ties to their cultures of origin as they acquire the skills they need to fit in to their new surroundings.

inferiority complex

Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences a pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather than trying to overcome their source feelings of low self-esteem that can lead to overcompensation for such feelings

individual psychology

Adler's view that people are motivated by purposes and goals and that perfection, not pleasure, is thus the key motivator in human life school of psychology proposed by Adler that focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority Adler's theory of personality, which emphasizes the unique potential of each individual

puberty

Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty—a period of rapid physical growth and change that culminates in sexual maturity. Although the average onset of puberty is age 10 for girls and age 12 for boys, the normal range extends from age 7 to age 14 for girls and from 9 to 16 for boys During puberty, the reproductive organs in both sexes mature and secondary sex characteristics appear

plateau phase

After the excitement phase, the individual enters the plateau phase, when excitement continues to mount. Blood pressure and muscle tension increase still more, and breathing becomes heavy and more rapid. The man's testes swell, and drops of liquid, which can contain live sperm cells, may drip from the penis. The outer part of the woman's vagina swells as the increased blood further engorges the area. The clitoris withdraws under the clitoral hood (its skin covering), and the breasts become engorged with blood. Excitement builds steadily during the plateau phase.

11.3: Trait Theories

Allport defined a cardinal trait as a personal quality that pervades a person's personality to the point where he or she may become identified with that trait. A central trait is the type you might mention when writing a letter of recommendation. Cattell used the term surface traits to refer to observable qualities of personality. Source traits, which underlie the surface traits, are possessed in varying amounts by people. Eysenck considered the three most important dimensions of personality to be psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism. According to the five-factor model, personality is influenced by five dimensions. The Big Five are neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience. Both twin and adoption studies have shown that heredity strongly influences personality. However, some traits change over time, suggesting that the environment also contributes to personality traits. The cultural dimension known as individualism/collectivism is associated with personality. Individualist cultures encourage people to view themselves as separate from others and to value independence and assertiveness. Collectivist cultures emphasize social connectedness among people and encourage individuals to define themselves in terms of their social relationships.

Cannon-Bard theory

An event causes a physiological and an emotional response simultaneously. One does not cause the other.

James-Lange theory

An event causes physiological arousal. You experience an emotion only after you interpret the physical response.

Schachter-Singer theory (two-factor theory)

An event causes physiological arousal. You must then be able to identify a reason for the arousal to label the emotion.

Lazarus theory

An event occurs, a cognitive appraisal is made, and then the emotion and physiological arousal follow.

hallucination

An imaginary sensation

intelligence quotient (IQ)

An index of intelligence, originally derived by dividing mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100, but now derived by comparing an individual's score with the scores of others of the same age

shaping

An operant conditioning technique consisting of gradually molding a target behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of it

Clarity of job description and evaluation criteria

Anxiety arises from confusion about job responsibilities and performance criteria or from a job description that is too rigidly defined to leave room for individual initiative.

Choose Your Reinforcers

Any activity you enjoy more can be used to reinforce any activity you enjoy less, such as rewarding yourself with a movie after a specified period of studying.

consolidation failure

Any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory from forming

Consolidation failure

Any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory from forming.

reinforcement

Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated

Interchangeability

Any sound that can be heard can be reproduced.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Any stimulus, such as food, that without prior learning will automatically elicit, or bring forth, an unconditioned response

alternative medicine

Any treatment or therapy that has not been scientifically demonstrated to be effective

lateral hypothalamus

As researchers discovered long ago, the lateral hypothalamus (LH) acts as a feeding center to incite eating

Conventional Level

At Kohlberg's second level of moral development, the conventional level, the individual has internalized the standards of others and judges right and wrong in terms of those standards. At Stage 3, sometimes called the good boy-nice girl orientation, moral judgments focus on social approval. Morally acceptable actions are those of which one's social group approves. Actions that one's group disapproves of are immoral. For example, a person might view drinking alcohol as immoral because her religious group condemns it. To maintain solidarity with the group, she must adopt the view that drinking alcohol is morally wrong. Another person might view smoking marijuana as morally acceptable because all his friends hold that view. Again, to maintain social bonds, the individual adopts the moral standards of the group. At Stage 4, the orientation moves beyond the social group and shifts to the maintenance of the larger social order in which the group is imbedded and obedience to authority. However, Stage 4 is not about blind obedience to authority. Instead, it is based on the realization that rules are necessary and that, to some degree, individuals' and subgroups' needs and desires must be subjugated to those of the larger group to avoid an "every man for himself" type of world. Themes of duty and responsibility are central to Stage 4 reasoning, as is the notion that, when challenges to authority are necessary, they must be carried out in morally acceptable ways. For example, suppose you received a speeding ticket but had evidence that you were not speeding. Stage 4 reasoning would wholeheartedly endorse your right to challenge the police officer's authority by taking your case to court. If you lost, however, Stage 4 reasoning would urge you to accept the court's verdict and would see merit in exhibiting respect for a process that does not always yield a just outcome but serves to maintain social order. the morality of mutual relationships. The "good boy- nice girl" orientation. Child acts to please and help others. The morality of the social system conscience. Orientation toward authority. Morality is doing one's duty, respecting authority, and maintaining the social order.

12.1: Defining Psychological Disorders

Behavior might be considered abnormal if it differs radically from what is considered normal in the person's own culture, if it leads to personal distress or impaired functioning, or if it results in the person's being a danger to self and/or others. Clinicians use the DSM-5 to classify and keep track of psychological disorders. It includes diagnostic criteria for about 300 psychological disorders. They are organized into several major categories. Tracking studies show that psychological disorders are more prevalent than physical diseases. Nearly half of people are diagnosed with some kind of psychological disorder during their lifetimes. The two most prevalent categories are anxiety and mood disorders. Five theoretical perspectives on the causes of psychological disorders are the biological perspective, the biopsychosocial perspective, the psychodynamic perspective, the learning perspective, and the cognitive perspective. The biological perspective emphasizes genetics and other physiological factors. The biopsychosocial focuses on interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors. Learning theorists explain psychological disorders as the result of experiences, whereas the cognitive perspective focuses on faulty thinking. The psychodynamic perspective is based on Freud's psychoanalytic theory and emphasizes unconscious processes.

Goal setting

Behavior results from establishing specific, difficult goals. Reducing employees' absences by inviting them to participate in establishing the criteria for an attendance bonus

13.3: Behavior Therapies

Behavior therapists use operant conditioning techniques such as the use of reinforcement to shape or increase the frequency of desirable behaviors (token economies) and the withholding of reinforcement to eliminate undesirable behaviors (time out). Behavior therapies based on classical conditioning are systematic desensitization, flooding, exposure and response prevention, and aversion therapy. In participant modeling, an appropriate response to a feared stimulus is modeled in graduated steps, and the client is asked to imitate each step with the encouragement and support of the therapist.

culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

telegraphic speech

Between 2 and 3 years of age, children begin to use short sentences, which may contain three or more words. Labeled telegraphic speech by Roger Brown (1973), these short sentences follow a rigid word order and contain only essential content words, leaving out all plurals, possessives, conjunctions, articles, and prepositions. Telegraphic speech reflects the child's understanding of syntax

See Tasks Through

Beware of jumping to another task when you reach a difficult part of an assignment. This procrastination tactic gives you the feeling that you are busy and accomplishing something, but it is, nevertheless, an avoidance mechanism.

psychosurgery

Brain surgery performed to alleviate serious psychological disorders or unbearable chronic pain

Difficulty in adjusting to role transitions

Clients are helped to see the change not as a threat but as a challenge that they can master and an opportunity for growth. The changes could be divorce, career change, or retirement.

Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive developmental theory, proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg (1966; Kohlberg & Ullian, 1974), suggests that an understanding of gender is a prerequisite to gender role development. According to Kohlberg, children go through a series of stages in acquiring the concept of gender. Between ages 2 and 3, children acquire gender identity—their sense of being a male or a female. Between ages 4 and 5, children acquire the concept of gender stability—awareness that boys are boys and girls are girls for a lifetime. Finally, between ages 6 and 8, children understand gender constancy—that gender does not change regardless of the activities people engage in or the clothes they wear. Moreover, according to Kohlberg, when children realize their gender is permanent, they are motivated to seek out same-sex models and learn to act in ways considered appropriate for their gender. Cross-cultural studies reveal that Kohlberg's stages of gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy occur in the same order in cultures as different as those in Samoa, Kenya, Nepal, and Belize (Munroe, Shimmin, & Munroe, 1984). Moreover, research shows that children's knowledge of gender stereotypes and the value that they attach to being male or female increase as they progress through the gender stability and constancy stages (Ruble et al., 2007). However, this theory fails to explain why many gender-appropriate behaviors and preferences are observed in children as young as age 2 or 3, long before gender constancy is acquired (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Jacklin, 1989; Martin & Little, 1990).

cerebellum

Connected to the brainstem at the back of the skull -Which has the task of coordinating body movements controlling posture maintaining equilibrium

Shaping

Definition​: rewarding successive approximations of the desired response—has been used effectively to condition complex behaviors in people as well as other animals Trainers use an operant conditioning technique called shaping in which animals learn their tricks in small steps rather than all at once Skinner box​:Skinner designed a soundproof apparatus, commonly called a Skinner box, with which he conducted his experiments in operant conditioning. Examples​:Parents may use shaping to help their children develop good table manners, praising them each time they show an improvement. Teachers often use shaping with disruptive children, reinforcing them at first for very short periods of good behavior and then gradually expecting them to work productively for longer and longer periods. Through shaping, circus animals have earned to perform a wide range of amazing feats, and pigeons have learned to bowl and play Ping-Pong.

depressive disorders

Disorders characterized by extreme and unwarranted disturbances in emotion or mood

Consciousness

Disorders: Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorders Sleep-Wake Disorders Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders Parasomnias Substance Related and Addictive Disorders

Consolidation failure

Disruption of consolidation prevents information from being stored in long-term memory

displacement

Distance and direction of an object's change in position from the starting point. When short-term memory is filled to capacity, displacement can occur each new incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten

Agreeableness

Do people describe you as easygoing? Individuals who are high in agreeableness are often characterized in this way. This dimension is composed of a collection of traits that range from compassion to antagonism toward others. A person who is low in agreeableness would not be viewed as easygoing. Instead, this individual would be described as unfriendly, argumentative, cold, and perhaps vindictive. Like conscientiousness, agreeableness is predictive of health outcomes, especially those that have to do with emotional well-being. Individuals who are high in agreeableness establish more effective relationships with psychotherapists, the result of which is that they seem to benefit more from therapy than those with low levels of agreeableness (Hirsh, Quilty, Bagby, & McMain, 2012). As you might guess, this trait is also related to employees' ability to function well in work teams (Stewart, Fulmer, & Barrick, 2005). However, people who are high in agreeableness also seem to be more likely to succumb to peer influence with regard to decisions about risky behavior, such as binge drinking (van Schoor, Bott, & Engels, 2008).

Conscientiousness

Do you always fold your laundry before putting it away? Individuals who score high on measures of conscientiousness pay more attention to such details than those who get lower scores. They are often viewed as reliable by others. By contrast, those at the lower end of this dimension may be perceived as lazy and undependable, but they also tend to be more spontaneous than people who get higher scores on this dimension. Research suggests that the components of conscientiousness include order, self-control, and industriousness (Jackson et al., 2009). Thus, it isn't surprising that conscientiousness is correlated with measures of health. Longitudinal studies, for example, suggest that, compared to peers who obtained low scores on measures of conscientiousness, children who were high in conscientiousness as elementary school students were less likely to be smokers or to be obese in middle adulthood (Hampson, Goldberg, Vogt, & Dubanoski, 2006). Likewise, conscientiousness shows long-term links to the tendency to maintain health-protective factors, such as avoiding obesity, during middle adulthood (Sutin, Ferrucci, Zonderman, Terracciano, 2011). Conscientiousness also predicts academic performance from elementary school through college (Corker, Oswald, & Donnellan, 2012). Among elementary school students, those who are highest in conscientiousness tend to be the highest achievers later in high school (Shiner, 2000). Likewise, across the years of undergraduate and graduate school, assessments of conscientiousness during students' first year predict their standing at the end of their programs of study (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2003).

hallucinogens

Drugs that alter moods, thoughts, and sense perceptions including vision, hearing, smell, and touch distort perceptions of time and space, alter mood, and produce feelings of unreality magnify the mood of the user

antipsychotic drugs

Drugs used to control severe psychotic symptoms, such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior, by inhibiting dopamine activity; also known as neuroleptics

Identity versus Role Confusion

During identity versus role confusion, adolescents experience a phenomenon Erikson called the identity crisis. During the identity crisis, teens must develop an idea of how they will fit into the adult world. A healthy identity, Erikson claimed, is essential to the next stage. Adolescents must make the transition from childhood to adulthood, establish an identity, develop a sense of self, and consider a future occupational identity. Otherwise, role confusion can result.

11.5: Personality Assessment

During observations, psychologists count behaviors that may be representative of an individual's personality. They use structured interviews to compare the responses of one interviewee to those of others given under similar circumstances. Rating scales are used to quantify behaviors that occur during observations or interviews. An inventory is a paper-and-pencil test with questions about a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which measures several dimensions of personality and can be scored according to a standard procedure. The MMPI-2 is designed to screen and diagnose psychiatric problems, and the CPI is designed to assess the normal personality. The MBTI uses examinees' scores to group them into sixteen categories that represent combinations of four dimensions: extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, judging/perceptive. In a projective test, people respond to inkblots or drawings of ambiguous human situations or by projecting their inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materials. Examples are the Rorschach Inkblot Method and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

secondary appraisal

During secondary appraisal, if people judge the situation to be within their control, they make an evaluation of available resources—physical (health, energy, stamina), social (support network), psychological (skills, morale, self-esteem), material (money, tools, equipment), and time. Then, they consider the options and decide how to deal with the stressor. The level of stress they feel is largely a function of whether their resources are adequate to cope with the threat, and how severely those resources will be taxed in the process.

Industry versus Inferiority

During the fourth stage, industry versus inferiority, school-aged children (age 6 years to puberty) begin to enjoy and take pride in making things and doing things. Children develop industriousness and feel pride in accomplishing tasks, making things, and doing things. If not encouraged or if rebuffed by parents and teachers, they may develop a sense of inferiority

cooing

During the second or third month, infants begin cooing repeatedly uttering vowel sounds such as "ah" and "oo."

Autonomy versus Shame

During the second stage, autonomy versus shame and doubt, children age 1 to 3 begin to express their independence (often by saying "No!") and develop their physical and mental abilities. children learn to express their will and independence, to exercise some control, and to make choices. If not, they experience shame and doubt.

perceptual reasoning index, processing speed index, and working memory index

Each of these indexes measures a different kind of nonverbal intelligence and generates its own IQ score. The WISC-IV also provides a comprehensive full-scale IQ score that takes all four types of tests into account. Many psychologists find comparisons of the different kinds of IQ scores generated by the WISC-IV to be helpful in gaining insight into a child's learning difficulties.

psychosocial stages

Erikson's eight developmental stages for the entire life span; each is defined by a conflict that must be resolved satisfactorily for healthy personality development to occur

Intimacy versus Isolation

Erikson's intimacy versus isolation stage begins around age 18. During this stage, young adults must find a life partner or come to a healthy acceptance of living in a single state. Young adults must develop intimacy - the ability to share with, care for, and commit themselves to another person. Avoiding intimacy brings a sense of isolation and loneliness

What is the difference between escape learning and avoidance learning?

Escape learning​: Learning to perform a behavior because it prevents or terminates an aversive event is called escape learning, and it reflects the power of negative reinforcement Avoidance learning: in contrast, depends on two types of conditioning Learned helplessness: is a passive resignation to aversive conditions, learned by repeated exposure to aversive events that are inescapable or unavoidable

consciousness

Everything of which we are aware at any given time—our thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions of the external environment

Disinhibitory

Exhibiting a previously learned unacceptable behavior after seeing a model do so ex: Waste time at work surfing the Internet based on observations of coworkers who do so without being admonished by supervisors

dissociation

Experts also point out that individuals who report recovered memories often have symptoms of dissociation, the tendency to mentally detach oneself from reality a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Exposure and Response Prevention

Exposure and response prevention has been successful in treating a variety of fears as well as obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (Alpers, 2010; Baer, 1996; Foa, 1995; Gallagher & Resick, 2012; Rhéaume & Ladouceur, 2000). The first component of this technique involves exposure—exposing clients to objects or situations they have been avoiding because they trigger obsessions and compulsive rituals. The second component is response prevention, in which clients agree to resist performing their compulsive rituals for progressively longer periods of time. Clients are gradually exposed to stimuli that they find more and more distasteful and anxiety provoking. They must agree not to perform the normal ritual (hand washing, bathing, or the like) for a specified period of time after each exposure. A typical treatment course—about 10 sessions over a period of 3 to 7 weeks—can bring about considerable improvement in 60 to 70% of patients (Jenike, 1990).

Reaction Formation

Expressing exaggerated ideas and emotions that are the opposite of disturbing, unconscious impulses and desires

formal concepts

For example, the notion that a triangle has three sides is a formal concept as is the idea that a square has four equal sides

bariatric surgery

For these individuals, bariatric surgery, procedures in which the capacity of the stomach is modified to reduce the amount of food that the person can consume, may be the only alternative (Saber, 2016). Candidates for bariatric surgery must have a BMI in excess of 40.

Retrieval failure

Forgetting something you are sure that you know

motivated forgetting

Forgetting through suppression or repression in an effort to protect oneself from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant

motivated forgetting

Forgetting through suppression or repression in an effort to protect oneself from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant.

Prospective forgetting

Forgetting to carry out an intended action

Oedipus complex

Freud named the complex after the central character in the ancient Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, in which the ill-fated king discovers that he has unknowingly married his mother. according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Gender-Schema Theory

Gender-schema theory, proposed by Sandra Bem (1981), provides a more complete explanation of gender role development. Like social learning theory, gender-schema theory suggests that young children are motivated to pay attention to and behave in a way consistent with gender-based standards and stereotypes of the culture. Like cognitive developmental theory, gender-schema theory stresses that children begin to use gender as a way to organize and process information (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Martin & Ruble, 2002). But, gender-schema theory holds that this process occurs earlier, when gender identity rather than gender constancy is attained, and children exhibit strong preferences for sex-appropriate toys and clothing and favor same-sex peers over those of the other sex (Powlishta, 1995). To a large extent, children's self-concepts and self-esteem depend on the match between their abilities and behaviors and the cultural definition of what is desirable for their gender. Consequently, the desire to maintain self-esteem, according to gender-schema theory, motivates children to align their behavior with culturally defined gender roles.

Explain how biological predispositions affect classical conditioning​

Genetically programed tendencies to acquire classically conditioned fear responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli

Phallic

Genitals Oedipal Conflict sexual curiosity masturbation flirtatiousness, vanity, promiscuity, pride, chastity

Genital

Genitals revival of sexual interests establishment of mature sexual relationships sexual dysfunctions

acceptance

Given enough time, patients may reach the final stage, acceptance, in which they stop struggling against death and contemplate its coming without fear or despair. Kübler-Ross claims that the family also goes through stages similar to those experienced by the patient

Religious Faith

Healthy habits, positive emotions, social involvement

Depression (D)

High scorers are usually depressed, despondent, and distressed.

Hypomania (Ma)

High scorers are usually emotional, excitable, energetic, and impulsive.

Hysteria (Hy)

High scorers complain often about physical symptoms that have no apparent organic cause.

Paranoia (Pa)

High scorers demonstrate extreme suspiciousness and feelings of persecution.

Psychasthenia (Pt)

High scorers tend to be highly anxious, rigid, tense, and worrying.

group polarization

However, research shows that group discussion often causes members of a group to shift to a more extreme position after participating in a discussion in which other group members strongly express agreement with them, a phenomenon

industrial/-organizational (I/O) psychologists

I/O psychologists design behavior modification plans that use reinforcers such as supervisor praise, bonuses, and extra time off to motivate employees to improve job performance. They may also use a strategy called goal setting

Begin Recording and Reinforcing Your Progress

If you find your plan isn't effective, make adjustments in the reinforcement conditions.

Extraversion

If you have a free evening, would you rather go to a party or stay home and read a book or watch a movie? Individuals who are high in extraversion prefer being around people. Chances are that anyone who is known as "the life of the party" is an extravert. Those at the opposite end of the continuum, introverts, may feel most comfortable when they are on their own. Researchers have found that extraversion is strongly linked to a number of important job-related variables. These variables include subjective feelings of happiness at work, satisfaction with one's job, and engagement with coworkers (Bono, Davies, & Rasch, 2012). Moreover, extraverts may have an easier time getting a job than their more introverted peers (Tay, Ang, & Dyne, 2006). Researchers have found that extraverts receive more job offers after being interviewed than do introverts. However, extraverts also may be more likely than introverts to engage in risky behaviors, such as unprotected sex (Miller et al., 2004).

Neuroticism

If you see an 8-ounce glass that contains 4 ounces of water, is it half empty or half full? People who are high in neuroticism tend to be pessimistic and always see the negative aspects of situations—the "half-empty" interpretation of life. At the same time, they are prone to emotional instability because of their tendency to overreact to the kinds of daily annoyances that most people take in stride. For example, an individual who is high in neuroticism might be very demonstrative about his or her frustration while standing in a slow-moving line at the campus bookstore. When such behaviors are exhibited by neurotic characters in television shows (e.g., Sheldon Cooper in The Big Bang Theory), they are often perceived as humorous by audiences and regarded sympathetically by other characters. However, in real life, individuals who are high in neuroticism have difficulty maintaining social relationships and are at higher risk than others for a variety of psychological disorders (Korten, Comijs, Lamers, & Penninx, 2012; Shiner & Masten, 2012). Predictably, individuals who get high scores on measures of neuroticism receive low ratings on cooperativeness from their coworkers (Stewart et al., 2005). There is also evidence that high neuroticism impedes learning (Robinson & Tamir, 2005). It appears that the worrisome thoughts that result from neuroticism distract individuals with this characteristic from information that they are trying to learn, thereby interfering with the transfer of information from short- to long-term memory.

reconstruction

In some cases, the act of bringing stored information to mind involves piecing together a plausible representation of an object or event based on fragmentary information the period after the Civil War in the United States when the southern states were reorganized and reintegrated into the Union

The Concrete Operations Stage

In the concrete operations stage (age 7 to 11 or 12 years), new schemes allow children to understand conservation. Conservation develops because new schemes enable children in this stage to understand the concept of reversibility—the understanding that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally. As a result, they can think about a broken cookie before and after it broke, realizing that the change in appearance did not change the substance that makes up the cookie. Children in the concrete operations stage are unable to apply logic to hypothetical situations. They also have difficulty with problems that involve systematically coordinating several variables. For example, they usually cannot solve reasoning problems like these: If Mary is taller than Bill, and Bill is taller than Harry, is Harry shorter than Mary?

denial

In the first stage, denial, most patients react to the diagnosis of their terminal illness with shock and disbelief (surely, the doctors must be wrong).

The Formal Operations Stage

In the formal operations stage (age 11 or 12 years and beyond) preadolescents and adolescents can apply logical thought to abstract, verbal, and hypothetical situations and to problems in the past, present, or future—a capacity Piaget called hypothetico-deductive thinking. Teenagers can comprehend abstract subjects, such as philosophy and politics, and they become interested in the world of ideas as they begin to formulate their own theories. However, not all people attain full formal operational thinking (Keller, 2011). Formal operational thinking enables adolescents to think of what might be. Thus, they begin to conceive of "perfect" solutions to the world's and their own problems. For example, a teen whose parents are divorced may idealize her noncustodial parent and believe that her life would be wonderful if only she could live with that parent. Piaget used the term naïve idealism to refer to this kind of thinking. Psychologist David Elkind (1967, 1974) claims that the early teenage years are marked by another kind of unrealistic thought, adolescent egocentrism, which takes two forms, the imaginary audience and the personal fable. The imaginary audience consists of admirers and critics that adolescents conjure up and that exist only in their imagination. In their minds, they are always on stage. Teens may spend hours in front of the mirror trying to please this audience. Teenagers also have an exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility that Elkind calls the personal fable. Many believe they are somehow indestructible and protected from the misfortunes that befall others, such as unwanted pregnancies or drug overdoses (Alberts, Elkind, Ginsberg, 2007).

The Sensorimotor Stage

In the sensorimotor stage (age birth to 2 years), infants gain an understanding of the world through their senses and their motor activities (actions or body movements). An infant's behavior, which is mostly reflexive at birth, becomes increasingly complex and gradually evolves into intelligent behavior. At this stage, thought is confined to objects that are present and events that are directly perceived. The major achievement of the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence—the realization that objects (including people) continue to exist, even when they are out of sight. For example, if an infant is playing with a ball that rolls under a piece of furniture where it can't be seen, he won't look for it unless he has developed object permanence. This concept develops gradually and is complete when the child is able to represent objects mentally in their absence. The attainment of this ability marks the end of the sensorimotor period.

bargaining

In the third stage, bargaining, the person attempts to postpone death in return for a promise of "good behavior." An individual may offer God some special service or a promise to live a certain kind of life in exchange for an opportunity to attend a child's wedding or a grandchild's graduation

Initiative versus Guilt

In the third stage, initiative versus guilt, 3- to 6-year-old children go beyond merely expressing their autonomy and begin to develop initiative. children begin to initiate activities, to plan and undertake tasks, end to enjoy developing motor and other abilities. If not allowed to initiate or if made to feel stupid and considered a nuisance, they may develop a sense of guilt

Antisocial

Individual disregards rights and feelings of others; is manipulative, impulsive, selfish, aggressive, irresponsible, reckless, and willing to break the law, lie, cheat, and exploit others for personal gain, without remorse; fails to hold jobs.

Schizotypal

Individual dresses in extremely unusual ways; lacks social skills; may have odd ideas resembling the delusions of schizophrenia.

Avoidant

Individual fears criticism and rejection; avoids social situations in order to prevent being judged by others.

Narcissistic

Individual has exaggerated sense of self-importance and entitlement; is self-centered, arrogant, demanding, exploitive, and envious; craves admiration and attention; lacks empathy.

Obsessive-compulsive

Individual is concerned with doing things the "right" way and is generally a perfectionist; relationships are emotionally shallow.

Borderline

Individual is unstable in mood, behavior, self-image, and social relationships; has intense fear of abandonment; exhibits impulsive and reckless behavior and inappropriate anger; makes suicidal gestures and performs self-mutilating acts.

Schizoid

Individual isolates self from others; appears unable to form emotional attachments; behavior may resemble that of autistic children.

Availability heuristic

Information that comes easily to mind determines the decision that is made, often because of a recent experience.

overextension

Initially a child's understanding of words differs from that of an adult. When they lack the correct word, children may act on the basis of shared features and apply a word to a broader range of objects than is appropriate. This is known as overextension. For example, any man may be called "dada" and any four-legged animal, "doggie."

Thurstone's primary mental abilities

Intelligence has seven separate components: verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, and reasoning.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Intermittent reinforcement is characteristic of a variable-ratio (VR) schedule in which a reinforcer is provided after a varying number of nonreinforced responses. response rate: Highest response rate Pattern of Responses: Constant response pattern, no pauses. Resistance to Extinction: Most resistance to extinction.

Repression

Involuntarily removing an unpleasant memory, thought, or perception from consciousness or barring disturbing sexual and aggressive impulses from consciousness the most frequently used defense mechanism

hassles

Irritating demands that occur daily and may cause more stress than major life changes do

hassles

Irritating demands that occur daily and may cause more stress than major life changes do.

temperament

Is each baby born with an individual behavior style or characteristic way of responding to the environment—a particular temperament, a person's behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment

neo-Freudians

Is it possible to construct a theory of personality that builds on the strengths of Freud's approach and avoids its weaknesses? Several personality theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, have attempted to do so. Most neo-Freudians started their careers as followers of Freud but began to disagree on certain basic principles of psychoanalytic theory. followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories Literally "New Freudians"; refers to theorists who broke with Freud but whose theories retain a psychodynamic aspect, especially a focus on motivation as the source of energy for the personality. Group of psychologists who agree with Freud's emphasis on the impact of childhood on one's life, but move away from a sole focus on sex and aggression.

Gather and Record Baseline Data

Keep a daily record of how much time you spend on the target behavior for about a week. Also note where the behavior takes place and what cues (or temptations) in the environment precede any slacking off from the target behavior.

Record Your Procrastination

Keep a record of the reasons you give yourself for postponing studying or completing important assignments. If a favorite rationalization is "I'll wait until I'm in the mood to do this," count the number of times in a week you are seized with the desire to study. The mood to study typically arrives after you begin, not before.

Postconventional Level

Kohlberg's highest level of moral development is the postconventional level, which requires the ability to think at Piaget's stage of formal operations. At this level, people do not simply internalize the standards of others. Instead, they weigh moral alternatives, realizing that the law may sometimes conflict with basic human rights. At Stage 5, the person believes that laws are formulated to protect both society and the individual and should be changed if they fail to do so. Thus, whereas Stage 4 reasoning focuses on the need to maintain order, Stage 5 reasoning argues that it is morally unacceptable to favor order over individual rights. For example, discriminatory laws that prohibited African Americans from attending certain schools or using public facilities restricted to Whites satisfied the Stage 4 criterion of order, but they violated the Stage 5 focus on basic human rights. Consequently, Stage 5 reasoning was at the heart of the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Likewise, Stage 5 reasoning was the basis of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, a document that asserted that the American colonists were justified in declaring themselves no longer subject to British rule because their rights had been violated. At Stage 6, ethical decisions are based on universal ethical principles, which emphasize respect for human life, justice, equality, and dignity for all people. People who reason morally at Stage 6 believe that they must follow such principles even if it results in a violation of the law. The morality of contract; respect for individual rights and laws that are democratically agreed on. Rational valuing of the wishes of the majority and the general welfare. Belief that society is best served if citizens obey the law. The highest stage of the highest social level. The morality of universal ethical principles. The person acts according to internal standards independent of legal restrictions of opinions of others

preconventional level

Kohlberg's lowest level of moral development, in which moral reasoning is based on the physical consequences of an act; "right" is whatever avoids punishment or gains a reward

conventional level

Kohlberg's second level of moral development, in which right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of others; "right" is whatever helps or is approved of by others, or whatever is consistent with the laws of society

Reflexiveness

Language can describe itself.

12.3: Depressive and Bipolar Disorders

Major depressive disorder is characterized by feelings of great sadness, despair, and hopelessness, as well as a loss of the ability to feel pleasure. Other symptoms include psychomotor disturbance and, possibly, psychotic depression. Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder in which a person has manic episodes (periods of wild optimism, inflated self-esteem, excessive euphoria, and hyperactivity) that alternate with periods of major depression. Risk factors for depressive and bipolar disorders include (1) a genetic predisposition; (2) disturbances in the brain's serotonin levels; (3) abnormal patterns in the neurotransmitters dopamine, GABA, and norepinephrine; (4) the personality trait of neuroticism; and (5) major life stress. Depression, depressive and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, and substance abuse are major risk factors for suicide. Other risk factors include particularly troubling life stressors and a genetic tendency to suicidal behavior. Elderly White males commit suicide more often than members of other race or age groups, perhaps because of poor health or loneliness. Research shows that women are more likely to attempt suicide, but men are more likely to be successful.

Sexual Motivation

Men are more likely than women to think of sex in purely physical terms and to have more permissive attitudes toward sex. The frequency of sexual activity varies across cultures. During ovulation women have the strongest desire for sex, and men are likely to be most rapidly aroused by ovulating female partners. Evolutionary psychologists say that differences in parental investment explain gender differences in attitudes and behavior, but others argue that social factors are responsible. The sexual response cycle consists of four phases: the excitement phase, the plateau phase, orgasm, and the resolution phase. Hormones influence the cycle in both men and women. Two general patterns in the prevalence of homosexuality are that males are more likely to identify with an exclusive homosexual orientation than women are, and same-sex attraction is more common than homosexual behavior. The biological factors suggested as possible causes of a gay or lesbian sexual orientation are (1) androgens, (2) structural differences in an area of the hypothalamus of gay men, and (3) genetic factors. Prior to 1973, homosexuality was considered to be a disorder by mental health professionals. Today most people are opposed to discrimination based on homosexuality. Homosexual relationships are similar to those involving heterosexuals. Gay men are more tolerant of sexual infidelity than heterosexual and lesbian couples. Like heterosexual women, lesbians place more emphasis on mutual emotional support than they do on sexual intimacy.

refractory period

Men experience a refractory period in the resolution phase, during which they cannot have another orgasm. The refractory period may last from only a few minutes for some men to as long as several hours for others. Women do not have a refractory period and may, if re-stimulated, experience another orgasm right away.

11.4: Social-Cognitive Theories

Mischel initiated the situation-trait debate to show how situations influence the manifestation of personality traits. He views a trait as a conditional probability that an action will occur in response to a specific situation. Bandura's reciprocal determinism model explains how traits and situations interact. The external environment (situation), behavior (partly due to traits), and cognitive factors (partly due to traits) are the three components of reciprocal determinism, each influencing and being influenced by the others. Self-efficacy gives people the confidence they need to accomplish goals. An internal locus of control helps them do so as well. An external locus of control may lead to procrastination.

stressor overload

More often, individuals between the ages of 40 and 60 are more likely to experience what psychologist David Almeida and his colleagues call stressor overload than either younger or older adults (Clay, 2003; Friedman, Karlamangla, Almeida, & Seeman, 2012). This condition arises when middle-aged people must balance the demands of mentoring teenaged and young adult children with those associated with caring for aging parents, managing their own careers, finding time for intimate relationships, and looking ahead to retirement

Physiological Needs

Need to satisfy the basic biological needs for food, water, oxygen, sleep, and elimination of bodily wastes.

resistance stage

Next, the organism enters the resistance stage, during which the adrenal cortex continues to release glucocorticoids to help the body resist stressors The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome, when there are intense physiological efforts to either resist or adapt to the stressor.

Latency

None period of sexual calm intense in school, hobbies, same-sex friends

Is the person legally responsible for his or her acts?

Often, the term insanity is used to label those who behave abnormally, but mental health professionals do not use this term. It is a legal term used by the courts to declare people not legally responsible for their acts. You should remember from Chapter 1 that forensic psychologists are clinical psychologists who specialize in the legal aspects of psychology. They sometimes testify in cases in which a defendant claims to have been insane at the time he or she committed a crime.

fixed-ratio (FR)

On a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, non- reinforced responses. response rate: very high Pattern of Responses: Steady response with low ratio. Brief pause after each reinforcement with very high ratio. Resistance to Extinction: The higher the ratio, the more resistance to extinction.

Schedule Time

Once you've scheduled it, be just as faithful to your schedule as you would be to a work schedule set by an employer.

drive-reduction theory

One biological approach to motivation, drive-reduction theory, was popularized by Clark Hull (1943). According to Hull, all living organisms have certain biological needs that must be met if they are to survive

need for achievement

One of the motives identified by Murray was the need for achievement (abbreviated n Ach), or the motive to accomplish something difficult and to maintain a high standard of performance. The need for achievement, rather than being satisfied with accomplishment, seems to grow as it is fed

Systematic Desensitization

One of the pioneers in the application of classical conditioning techniques to therapy, psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe (1958, 1973), reasoned that if he could get people to relax and stay relaxed while they thought about a feared object, person, place, or situation, they could conquer their fear. In Wolpe's therapy, known as systematic desensitization, clients are trained in deep muscle relaxation. Then, they confront a hierarchy of fears—a graduated series of anxiety-producing situations—either in vivo (in real life) or in their imagination, until they can remain relaxed even in the presence of the most feared situation. Many studies indicate that systematic desensitization is a highly successful treatment for problems, such as test anxiety, stage fright, and anxiety related to sexual disorders (Kolivas, Riordan, & Gross, 2008; Zinbarg & Griffith, 2008).

Interference

One piece of information displaces another

cross-sectional method

One way to accomplish this is by comparing individuals of different ages

psychodynamic perspective

Originally proposed by Freud, the psychodynamic perspective maintains that psychological disorders stem from early childhood experiences and unresolved, unconscious conflicts, usually of a sexual or aggressive nature. The cause assumed by the psychodynamic approach also suggests the cure—psychoanalysis, which Freud developed to uncover and resolve such unconscious conflicts. Causes: Psychological disorders stem from early childhood experiences and unresolved, unconscious sexual or aggressive conflicts. Treatment: Bring disturbing repressed material to consciousness and help the patient work through unconscious conflicts Psychoanalysis

incentive

Other motives originate from outside, as when some external stimulus, or incentive, pulls or entices you to act.

12.2: Anxiety Disorders

People who have panic attacks respond to ordinary changes in the body as though they were life threatening. The symptoms of panic attacks include intense fear, rapidly beating heart, and other signs of physiological distress. Repeated panic attacks can lead to agoraphobia, the fear of being in places from which escape is difficult. Panic disorder occurs when panic attacks are so frequent that they interfere with a person's social, occupational, and/or academic functioning. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) involves chronic, excessive worry. Social anxiety disorder (social phobia) arises out of the fear of embarrassment, whereas specific phobias represent irrational fear responses to objects or situations. The Big Five personality traits contribute to the development of GAD and phobias. People who are high in the trait of neuroticism are more likely to develop them. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by recurrent obsessions (persistent, involuntary thoughts, images, or impulses that cause great distress) and/or compulsions (persistent, irresistible, irrational urges to perform an act or ritual repeatedly). Early infections and a tendency to exhibit exaggerated responses to stimuli that are universally undesirable contribute to the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Type B

People with Type B behavior pattern are relaxed and easygoing and are not driven by a sense of time urgency. They are not impatient or hostile and are able to relax without guilt. They play for fun and relaxation rather than to exhibit superiority over others. Yet, a Type B individual may be as bright and ambitious as a Type A person, and more successful as well. People with Type B personality tend to have lower rates of coronary heart disease than their peers (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974).

Type D

People with Type D behavior pattern ("D" for distress; Denollet, 1997) exhibit a chronic pattern of emotional distress combined with a tendency to suppress negative emotions. Many studies have revealed a link between Type D behavior pattern and heart disease (Garcia-Retamero, Petrova, Arrebola-Moreno, Catena, & Ramirez-Hernandez, 2016).

burnout

People with burnout lack energy, feel emotionally drained, and are pessimistic about the possibility of changing their situations. Chronic stress can also lead to work-related burnout

Type A

People with the Type A behavior pattern have a strong sense of time urgency. Most try to achieve as much as possible in as little time as is feasible. This pattern is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease (Huang et al., 2015).

Job status

People with very low-paying, low-status jobs may feel psychological discomfort; those with celebrity status often cannot handle the stress that fame brings.

Psychoanalysis

Perceived Cause of Disorder: Unconscious sexual and aggressive urges or conflicts; fixations; weak ego; object relations; life stress Goals of Therapy: Help patient bring disturbing, repressed material to consciousness and work through unconscious conflicts; strengthen ego functions Methods Used: Psychoanalyst analyzes and interprets dreams, free associations, resistance, and transference, and past relationships Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: general feelings of unhappiness; unresolved problems from childhood

person-centered therapy

Perceived Cause of Disorder: blocking of normal tendency toward self-actualization incongruence between real and desired self; overdependence on positive regard of others Goals of Therapy: increase self-acceptance and self-understanding; help client become more inner-directed; increase congruence between real and desired self; enhance personal growth Methods Used: therapist shows empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness, and reflects client's expressed feelings back to client Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: general feelings of unhappiness; interpersonal problem

cognitive therapies

Perceived Cause of Disorder: irrational negative assumptions and ideas about self and others Goals of Therapy: change faulty, irrational, and/or negative thinking Methods Used: therapist helps client identify irrational and negative thinking and substitute rational thinking Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: depression, anxiety, panic disorder, general feelings of unhappiness

behavior therapies

Perceived Cause of Disorder: learning of maladaptive behaviors or failure to learn appropriate behaviors Goals of Therapy: extinguish maladaptive behaviors and replace with more adaptive ones; help client acquire needed social skills Methods Used: therapist uses methods based on classical and operant conditioning and modeling, which include systematic desensitization, flooding, exposure and response prevention, and aversion therapy Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: fears, phobias, panic, disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, bad habits

Group Therapy

Perceived Cause of Disorder: none Goals of Therapy: give clients sense of belonging, opportunity to express feelings, opportunity to give and receive feedback from others with similar problems Methods Used: 7 to 10 clients meet regularly with one or more therapists to resolve personal problems Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: anxiety, depression, low self-esteem

Family therapy

Perceived Cause of Disorder: problems caused by faulty communication patterns, unreasonable role expectations, drug and/or alcohol abuse, and so on Goals of Therapy: create more understanding and harmony within the relationships; improve communication patterns; heal wounds of family unity Methods Used: therapist sees clients individually or several families members at a time and explores such things as communication patterns, power struggles, and unreasonable demands and expectations Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: family problems such as marriage or relationship problems troubled or troublesome teenager, abusive relationships, drug or alcohol problems, schizophrenia family members

biomedical therapies

Perceived Cause of Disorder: underlying physical disorder caused by structural or biochemical abnormality in the brain; genetic inheritance Goals of Therapy: eliminate or control biological cause of abnormal behavior; restore balance of neurotransmitters Methods Used: physician prescribes drugs such as antipsychotics, antidepressants, lithium, or tranquilizers; uses ECT or psychosurgery Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: Schizophrenic, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders

Observation

Performance (behavior) is observed in a specific situation, and personality is assessed based on the observation

permissive-neglectful

Permissive parents in the permissive-neglectful subcategory lack warmth. They allow children to do as they please because they are not interested in them or in supporting their development (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). This parenting style is associated with drinking problems, promiscuous sex, delinquent behavior, and poor academic performance in adolescents.

Dependent

Person overly dependent on others for advice and approval; may cling to lovers and friends, fearing abandonment.

Duality of patterning

Phonemes are combined in rule-governed patterns to create words; words are combined in rule-governed patterns to create sentences.

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcers?​

Positive Reinforcement​: -Add a pleasant stimulus​ -an increase in behavior that results from an added stimulus -Food, money, praise, attention, etc.​ Negative Reinforcement​: -Subtract an aversive stimulus​ -Removing or terminating pain-producing or other aversive stimulus, e.g., electric shock​

Positive and negative punishment

Positive punishment: -Add an aversive stimulus​ -Delivering a pain-producing or otherwise aversive stimulus, e.g., spanking​ -is the giving of an aversive event contingent on a behavior with the goal of decreasing the likelihood of behavior in the future. Negative punishment: -is taking away an event with the goal of decreasing the likelihood of behavior in the future -happens when a behavior decreases after the removal of a consequence

What are the Internet's effects on learning?

Positive ​ Negative Applications for children

Practice

Practice answering interview questions with a friend. Many college career centers have lists of frequently asked interview questions, and you should always create your own list of questions that you think the interviewer might ask. Try to avoid saying negative things about yourself. Remember, too, that consistent eye contact will show the interviewer that you have confidence.

Resistant Attachment

Prior to a period of separation, infants who show resistant attachment (10 to 15% of American infants) seek and prefer close contact with their mother. Yet, in contrast to securely attached infants, they do not tend to branch out and explore. And when the mother returns to the room after a period of separation, the resistant infant displays anger and may push the mother away or hit her. When picked up, the infant is hard to comfort and may continue crying.

David Premack (1971)

Psychologist David Premack (1971) taught another chimp, Sarah, to use an artificial language he developed. Its symbols consisted of magnetized chips of various shapes, sizes, and colors, as shown in Figure 7.1. Premack used operant conditioning techniques to teach Sarah to select the magnetic chip representing a fruit and place it on a magnetic language board. The trainer would then reward Sarah with the fruit she had requested. Sarah mastered the concepts of similarities and differences, and eventually she could signal whether two objects were the same or different with nearly perfect accuracy

cognition

Psychologists use the term cognition to refer collectively to these processes, which include acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information You have already learned about some of them (sensation, perception, and memory)

gender roles

Psychologists use the term gender roles to refer to such expectations. Children display play behavior that is consistent with gender roles fairly early in life, by age 2 or so. Traditionally, males have been expected to be independent and competitive; females have been expected to be warm and nurturant.

humanistic therapies

Psychotherapies that assume that people have the ability and freedom to lead rational lives and make rational choices

psychodynamic therapies

Psychotherapies that attempt to uncover repressed childhood experiences that are thought to explain a patient's current difficulties

adolescent growth spurt

Puberty begins with a surge in hormone production followed by a marked acceleration in growth known as the adolescent growth spurt. On average, the growth spurt occurs from age 10 to 13 in girls and about 2 years later in boys, from age 12 to 15 (Tanner, 1990). Girls attain their full height between ages 16 and 17 and boys between ages 18 and 20

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Rating scales

Rating scales are used to score or rate test-takers on the basis of traits, behaviors, or results of interviews. Assessment is subjective, and accuracy depends largely on the ability and experiences of the evaluator

13.4: Cognitive Behavior Therapies

Rational emotive behavior therapy is a directive form of therapy designed to challenge and modify a client's irrational beliefs, which are believed to be the cause of personal distress. Beck's cognitive therapy helps people overcome depression and panic disorder by pointing out the irrational thoughts causing them misery and by helping them learn other, more realistic ways of looking at themselves and their experiences.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theorists point out that biological influences on gender role development don't operate in an environmental vacuum. For example, from infancy on, most of the presents children receive are gender consistent: Girls are given dolls and tea sets, while boys get trucks and sports equipment. Thus, these theorists argue that environmental influences are more important than biological forces in explaining gender role development (Mischel, 1966). They point out that children are usually reinforced for imitating behaviors considered appropriate for their gender. When behaviors are not appropriate (a boy puts on lipstick, or a girl pretends to shave her face), children are quickly informed, often in a reprimanding tone, that boys or girls do not do that. However, there is little evidence that parents reinforce gender role-appropriate behavior in girls and boys often enough to account for the early age at which children begin to show gender-typed behavior (Fagot, 1995). Thus, imitation and reinforcement probably play some part in gender role development, but they do not provide a full explanation of this phenomenon.

12.5: Somatic Symptom, Dissociative, Gender, and Personality Disorders

Somatic symptom disorders involve physical symptoms that cannot be identified as any of the known medical conditions. Some people with somatic symptom disorders have a persistent fear that bodily symptoms are the sign of some serious disease, and conversion disorder involves a loss of motor or sensory functioning in some part of the body, which has no physical cause but does solve a psychological problem. Dissociative disorders cause people to lose the ability to consciously integrate their identities in some important way. People with dissociative amnesia have a complete or partial loss of the ability to recall personal information or identify past experiences. In dissociative fugue, people forget their entire identity, travel away from home, and may assume a new identity somewhere else. In dissociative identity disorder, two or more distinct, unique personalities exist in the same person, and there is severe memory disruption concerning personal information about the other personalities. A sexual dysfunction is a problem with sexual desire, sexual arousal, or the pleasure associated with sex or orgasm. Paraphilias are disorders in which people have recurrent sexual urges, fantasies, and behaviors that involve children, other nonconsenting persons, nonhuman objects, or the suffering and humiliation of the individual or his/her partner. People with personality disorders have long-standing, inflexible, maladaptive patterns of behavior that cause problems in their social relationships and at work.

To what degree is the person's behavior maladaptive?

Some experts believe that the best way to differentiate between normal and abnormal behavior is to consider to what extent it impairs an individual's functioning. Washing your hands before you eat is adaptive. Washing them when you handle dirty objects is also adaptive, even if you do so somewhat more often than others. By contrast, washing your hands 100 times a day out of an irrational fear of contamination is both maladaptive and abnormal. Why? Because a person who washes his hands 100 times a day can scarcely do anything else.

Racism

Some theorists have proposed that a phenomenon called historical racism—experienced by members of groups that have a history of repression, such as Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, and African Americans—is a source of social stress (Alamilla, Kim, & Lam, 2010; Belcourt-Dittloff & Stewart, 2000; Troxel, Matthews, Bromberger, & Sutton-Tyrrell, 2003). Researchers interested in the effects of historical racism have focused primarily on African Americans. Many of these researchers claim that the higher incidence of high blood pressure among African Americans is attributable to stress associated with historical racism (Gee, Walsemann, & Brondolo, 2012). Surveys have shown that African Americans experience more race-related stress than members of other minority groups do (Utsey, Chae, Brown, & Kelly, 2002). Those African Americans who express the highest levels of concern about racism display higher levels of cardiovascular reactivity to experimentally induced stressors, such as sudden loud noises, than do peers who express less concern (Bowen-Reid & Harrell, 2002). At least one study has demonstrated a correlation between African Americans' perceptions of racism and hypertension (Din-Dzietham, Nembhard, Collins, & Davis, 2004). Researchers found that African Americans who reported the highest levels of race-related stressors in their workplaces were more likely to have high blood pressure than workers who reported fewer such stressors. However, African Americans are also more likely than members of other minority groups to have a strong sense of ethnic identity, a factor that helps moderate the effects of racial stress (Tovar-Murray, Jenifer, Andrusyk, D'Angelo, & King, 2012).

Human contact

Some workers have virtually no human contact on the job (forest-fire lookouts); others have almost continuous contact with others (welfare and employment office workers). People vary greatly in how much interaction they enjoy or even tolerate.

the second sleep cycle

Stages 2, 3, and 4 of NREM sleep and a period of REM sleep

Physical variables

Temperature, noise, humidity, pollution, amount of workspace, and the physical positions (standing or sitting) required to carry out job duties should fall within a person's comfort zone.

Health and Illness

The Type A behavior pattern, often cited as a risk factor for coronary heart disease, is characterized by a sense of time urgency, impatience, excessive competitive drive, hostility, and easily aroused anger. The Type B behavior pattern is characterized by a relaxed, easygoing approach to life, without the time urgency, impatience, and hostility of the Type A pattern. People with the Type D behavior pattern experience high levels of negative emotions that they usually suppress. Research does not support the idea that stress causes cancer. However, stress associated with cancer treatment affects how the immune system responds to treatment. In addition, variables such as optimism contribute to cancer patients' resistance to stress. Therapy can help patients maintain a positive emotional state and cope more effectively with the pain they experience. Women are more likely than men to die following heart surgery. Generally, though, men are more likely than women to die from most diseases, but women are generally less healthy. When men and women have the same diseases, men are often more seriously ill. Researchers suspect these patterns may be caused by the unique physiology of each gender. Some researchers believe that African Americans have greater levels of high blood pressure than members of other groups because of stress due to historical racism. African Americans who express high levels of concern about racism display larger cardiovascular responses to experimentally induced stressors than do their peers who express lower levels of concern. Racial patterning produces correlations between race and health through its influence on group differences in risk and protective factors.

period of the fetus

The final stage of prenatal development lasts from the end of the second month until birth. The fetus undergoes rapid growth and further development of the structures, organs, and systems of the body. During the last several weeks of prenatal development, the fetus is capable of responding to stimuli from the outside world, particularly sounds. Further, newborns remember the stimuli to which they were exposed prior to birth (Granier-Deferre et al., 2011). In a classic study of prenatal learning, DeCasper and Spence (1986) had 16 pregnant women read The Cat in the Hat to their developing fetuses twice a day during the final 6 weeks of pregnancy. A few days after birth, the infants could adjust their sucking on specially designed, pressure-sensitive nipples to hear their mother reading either The Cat in the Hat or The King, the Mice, and the Cheese, a story they had never heard before. By their sucking behavior, the infants showed a definite preference for the familiar story.

mastery/performance

The first dimension is mastery/performance. Mastery involves working toward a personally meaningful goal. Performance involves working toward a goal defined by social comparison

Secure Attachment

The first pattern is secure attachment (observed in about 65% of American infants). Although usually distressed when separated from their mother, securely attached infants eagerly seek to reestablish the connection and then show an interest in play. They use the mother as a safe base of operation from which to explore and are typically more responsive, obedient, cooperative, and content than other infants. In addition, secure attachment seems to protect infants from the potentially adverse effects of risk factors such as poverty (Belsky & Fearon, 2002). Further, preschoolers who were securely attached as infants display more advanced social skills, such as the ability to maintain friendships, than peers who were not securely attached to their caregivers (McElwain & Volling, 2004).

alarm stage

The first stage of the body's response to a stressor is the alarm stage, in which the adrenal cortex releases hormones called glucocorticoids that increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels, supplying a burst of energy that helps the person deal with the stressful situation, that is, the fight-or-flight syndrome

depression

The fourth stage, depression, brings a great sense of loss and may take two forms—depression over past losses and depression over impending losses

hippocampus

The hippocampus is a basic information processing it matches new information. Information that's already stored in the brain. It also stores. Some kinds of memories.

Sources of Stress

The life events approach focuses on individuals' responses to the stresses associated with major life changes. The SRRS assesses stress in terms of major life events, positive or negative, that necessitate change and adaptation. Holmes and Rahe found a relationship between degree of life stress (as measured on the scale) and major health problems. Research on responses to catastrophic events shows that people respond differently to such stressors. Some people develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a prolonged, severe stress reaction, often characterized by flashbacks, nightmares, or intrusive memories of the traumatic event. Some theorists argue that everyday stressors are more important than major life events. According to Lazarus, daily hassles typically cause more stress than major life changes. Positive experiences in life—or uplifts—can neutralize the effects of many of the hassles, however. Choices are another important source of stress in everyday life. In an approach-approach conflict, a person must decide between equally desirable alternatives. In an avoidance-avoidance conflict, the choice is between two undesirable alternatives. In an approach-avoidance conflict, a person is both drawn to and repelled by a single choice. Nine variables influence a worker's comfort zone. They include workload, clarity of job description and evaluation criteria, physical variables, job status, accountability, task variety, human contact, physical challenge, and mental challenge. Discrimination and harassment contribute to work-related stress. Job stress affects employees' effectiveness, absenteeism, tardiness, accidents, substance abuse, and morale. Chronic work stress can lead to burnout. People of low socioeconomic status have more stress-related health problems than those of higher status. Stressors associated with low SES include lifestyle factors such as smoking as well as higher levels of stress hormones. Perceived status may predict health outcomes better than objective status. Unemployment is another status variable that is related to health. People who lose their jobs suffer more stress-related illnesses in the months following job loss than peers who are still employed.

sensory memory

The memory system that holds information from the senses for a period ranging from only a fraction of a second to about 2 seconds

long-term memory (LTM)

The memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories

long term memory (LTM)

The memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories.

Neodissociation

The mind's planning function consciously responds to a hypnotist's suggestions while its monitoring function observes these responses unconsciously.

superego

The moral system of the personality, which consists of the conscience and the ideal. the moral component of the personality, is formed at 5 or 6 the moral system of the personality, which consists of the conscience and the ego ideal The superego has two parts: (1) The conscience consists of all the behaviors for which the child has been punished and about which he or she feels guilty and (2) the ego ideal comprises the behaviors for which the child has been praised and rewarded and about which he or she feels pride and satisfaction

hot flashes

The most common symptom associated with menopause and the sharp decrease in the level of estrogen is hot flashes—sudden feelings of being uncomfortably hot. Some women also experience symptoms such as anxiety, irritability, and/or mood swings

Get Started

The most difficult part is getting started. Give yourself an extra reward for starting on time and, perhaps, a penalty for starting late.

12.4: Schizophrenia

The positive symptoms of people with schizophrenia are abnormal behaviors and characteristics, including hallucinations, delusions, derailment, grossly disorganized behavior, and inappropriate affect. The negative symptoms of schizophrenia represent loss of or deficiencies in thoughts and behavior that are characteristic of normal functioning. They include social withdrawal, apathy, loss of motivation, lack of goal-directed activity, very limited speech, slowed movements, flat affect, poor problem-solving abilities, a distorted sense of time, and poor hygiene and grooming. Theorists propose that schizophrenia arises from an interaction of constitutional vulnerability and external factors. Constitutional vulnerability includes heredity and prenatal risks, such as exposure to teratogens. Stress is an important external factor. Neuromaturational development is also believed to contribute to the finding that schizophrenia usually appears in the late adolescent or early adult years.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

The predictable sequence of reactions (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages) that organisms show in response to stressors

A more serious viral STD is genital warts caused by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV)

The primary symptom of the disease, the presence of growths on the genitals, is not its most serious effect, however. HPV is strongly associated with cervical cancer (CDC, 2012e). Studies indicate that, in the United States, 50% of sexually active men and 43% of sexually active women are infected with HPV

Self-actualization

The pursuit of self defined goals for personal fulfillment and growth

self-actualization

The pursuit of self-defined goals for personal fulfillment and growth

punishment

The removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response

approach/avoidance

The second dimension is approach/avoidance. Approach means that the goal helps the individual move toward something that is desirable. Avoidance means that the goal helps the individual move away from something that is undesirable

anger

The second stage, anger, is marked by feelings of anger, resentment, and envy of those who are young and healthy.

13.1: Insight Therapies

The techniques associated with psychoanalysis are free association, dream analysis, object relations, and transference. They are used to uncover the repressed memories, impulses, and conflicts presumed to be the cause of the patient's problems. Interpersonal therapy (IPT) is designed to help people with depression cope with unusual or severe responses to the death of a loved one, interpersonal role disputes, difficulty in adjusting to role transitions, and deficits in interpersonal skills. Person-centered therapy is a nondirective therapy in which the therapist provides empathy and a climate of unconditional positive regard. The goal is to allow the client to determine the direction of the therapy sessions and to move toward self-actualization. Gestalt therapy emphasizes the importance of clients' fully experiencing, in the present moment, their feelings, thoughts, and actions and taking personal responsibility for their behavior.

Socioeconomic Status

The term socioeconomic status is often used to refer to differences in income levels, but it includes much more than just financial resources. Occupation and education are also important components of socioeconomic status. People who are low in socioeconomic status are usually found to more frequently have stress-related health conditions such as colds and the flu. In addition, health risk factors such as high levels of LDL cholesterol (the bad cholesterol associated with heart disease) are typically more common among them (Goodman et al., 2005). Looking further into this relationship, researchers have found higher rates of smoking, more limited social networks, and less regular patterns of eating among people of lower socioeconomic status than among those with more resources. This is not to say that these factors apply to everyone who has a low income, but they are found more frequently among those who are economically disadvantaged. Their presence affects the averages of health variables among low-income groups, thus creating correlations between socioeconomic status and these variables.

Interpersonal role disputes

The therapist helps the client to understand others' points of view and to explore options for bringing about change.

Emotion

The three components of emotions are the physiological arousal that accompanies the emotion, the cognitive appraisal of the stimulus or situation, and the outward behavioral expression of the emotion. According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, environmental stimuli produce a physiological response, and then awareness of this response causes the emotion to be experienced. The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that emotion-provoking stimuli received by the senses are relayed simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, providing the mental experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, producing physiological arousal. The Schachter-Singer theory states that for an emotion to occur, (1) there must be physiological arousal, and (2) the person must perceive some reason for the arousal to label the emotion. According to the Lazarus theory, an emotion-provoking stimulus triggers a cognitive appraisal, which is followed by the emotion and the physiological arousal. Affective neuroscientists have identified associations between emotions and different areas of the brain, and most believe a distinct neurological system underlies each emotion. The amygdala contributes to fear-based learning. The cortex monitors physiological cues associated with emotion and relates them to past experiences to help us make decisions. The anterior cingulate cortex suppresses emotional cues to help us control impulsivity. Men and women appear to manage emotions differently. Women are more likely to feel hurt or disappointed after a betrayal or harsh criticism from another person, whereas men are more likely to feel angry. Men and women also differ in their likeliness to express anger publicly. The basic emotions (happiness, sadness, disgust, and so on) are those that are unlearned and universal and that emerge in children according to their biological timetable of development. Studies also show that there is variation across cultures in the ways emotions are elicited and regulated and how they are shared socially. The customs of an individual's culture determine when, where, and under what circumstances various emotions are exhibited. Children learn these rules as they mature so that, as adults, they will be able to suppress and exhibit emotions in accordance with the rules of their cultures. Violating a culture's display rules can cause a person's behavior to be interpreted as rude or offensive. The facial-feedback hypothesis suggests that the muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions trigger corresponding emotions (for example, smiling triggers happiness). Positive psychologists study the impact of positive emotional states on other aspects of functioning.

11.1: Psychoanalytic Theories

The three levels of awareness in consciousness are the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. The conscious mind includes everything we are thinking about at any given moment. The preconscious includes thoughts and feelings we can easily bring to mind. The unconscious contains thoughts and feelings that are difficult to call up because they have been repressed. The id is the primitive, unconscious part of the personality, which contains the instincts and operates on the pleasure principle. The ego is the rational, largely conscious system, which operates according to the reality principle. The superego is the moral system of the personality, consisting of the conscience and the ego ideal. A defense mechanism is a means used by the ego to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem. Freud asserted that the sexual instinct is present at birth and develops through a series of psychosexual stages, providing the driving force for all feelings and behaviors. The stages are the oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage (followed by the latency period), and genital stage. One of the most controversial features of Freud's stage theory is the Oedipus complex, a conflict that arises during the phallic stage in which the child is sexually attracted to the opposite-sex parent and feels hostility toward the same-sex parent. Freud is credited with calling attention to the unconscious, the importance of early childhood experiences, and the role of defense mechanisms. However, his theory is often criticized because it defies scientific testing. Jung's model of personality includes three parts: the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. Adler claimed that the predominant force of the personality is not sexual in nature but rather the drive to overcome and compensate for feelings of weakness and inferiority and to strive for superiority or significance. Horney took issue with Freud's sexist view of women and added the feminine dimension to the world of psychology.

subjective night

The time during a 24-hour period when the biological clock is telling a person to go to sleep. when their biological clock is telling them to go to sleep energy and efficiency are at their lowest points, reaction time is slowest, productivity is diminished, and industrial accidents are significantly higher

cognitive dissonance

The unpleasant state that can occur when people become aware of inconsistencies between their attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior

13.5: Biomedical Therapies

The use of drug therapy has reduced the number of patients in mental hospitals. Antipsychotic drugs control the major symptoms of schizophrenia by inhibiting the activity of dopamine. Antidepressants are helpful in the treatment of severe depression and certain anxiety disorders. Lithium and anticonvulsant drugs can control symptoms of manic episodes and can even out the mood swings in bipolar disorder. Antianxiety drugs are used primarily to treat anxiety. Some problems with the use of drugs are unpleasant or dangerous side effects and the fact that relapse is likely if the drug therapy is discontinued. Also, the movement away from hospitalization has led to an increase in the number of homeless people with mental disorders. The unilateral form of ECT is used to treat people with severe depression, especially those who are in imminent danger of committing suicide. Psychosurgery is brain surgery performed to relieve some severe, persistent, and debilitating psychological disorders or unbearable chronic pain. A highly controversial technique, psychosurgery is considered experimental and a last resort.

life events approach

The view that a person's state of well-being can be threatened by major life changes

social-cognitive theory

The view that personality can be defined as a collection of learned behaviors acquired through social interactions

framing

The way information is presented to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential loss as the outcome

relationship therapies

Therapies that attempt to improve clients' interpersonal relationships or create new relationships to support clients' efforts to address psychological problems

13.6: Practical Issues in Psychotherapy

Therapists vary according to their training and the techniques that they use. Psychiatrists have medical degrees, whereas psychologists have doctoral degrees in psychology. Regardless of training, all psychotherapists must adhere to ethical standards regarding informed consent, confidentiality, the nature of the therapeutic relationship, and termination of therapy. This approach to therapy helps mental health professionals be more aware of cultural variables that may influence clients' responses to the therapy and the therapist as well as therapists' responses to clients. Clients' cultural backgrounds and practices may be useful in guiding the choice of therapeutic interventions. Gender sensitivity helps therapists realize how their own gender biases may affect the therapeutic techniques that they choose and their assessments of clients' progress. Although no one therapeutic approach has proved generally superior overall, specific therapies have proven to be most effective for treating particular disorders. For example, cognitive and interpersonal therapies are preferred for people with depression.

Gardner's frames of mind

There are eight independent forms of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

Sternberg's triarchic theory

There are three types of intelligence: componential, experiential, and contextual.

Describe the effects of multitasking on learning Models

There are varying types of learning that involve models and observers. These different types of learning are called effects because they represent the different ways in which models affect the behavior of observers.

Arbitrariness

There is no meaningful link between an object, event, or thought and the way it is expressed phonologically.

arousal

These theorists use the term arousal to refer to a person's state of alertness and mental and physical activation. Arousal levels can range from no arousal (when a person is comatose), to moderate arousal (when pursuing normal day-to-day activities), to high arousal (when excited and highly stimulated)

levels-of-processing model

This model proposed that maintenance rehearsal involves "shallow" processing (encoding based on superficial features of information, such as the sound of a word), whereas elaborative rehearsal involves "deep" processing (encoding based on the meaning of information)

cryptomnesia

Thus, when you read a passage of text in an article or other reference and store it in your semantic memory for future use, reconstructive memory processes may lead you to mistakenly believe that you thought of it yourself when you are writing your paper a type of misattribution that occurs when a person thinks he or she has come up with a new idea, yet has only retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else

Tolman's experiment​

Tolman (1932) believed that learning could take place without reinforcement. Second, he differentiated between learning and performance. He maintained that latent learning could occur; that is, learning could occur without apparent reinforcement and not be demonstrated until the organism was motivated to do so. A classic experimental study by Tolman and Honzik (1930) supports this position. Three groups of rats were placed in a maze daily for 17 days. The first group always received a food reward at the end of the maze. The second group never received a reward, and the third group did not receive a food reward until the 11th day. The first group showed a steady improvement in performance over the 17-day period. The second group showed slight, gradual improvement. The third group, after being rewarded on the 11th day, showed a marked improvement the next day and, from then on, outperformed the rats that had been rewarded daily (see Figure 5.8).

Psychoanalyst

Training M.D., Ph.D., or Psy.D.; additional training in psychoanalysis Services Provided Psychodynamic therapy

Clinical or psychiatric social worker (M.S.W.)

Training Master's degree; internship in psychiatric social work Services Provided Diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders; identification of supportive community services

Counseling psychologist

Training Ph.D. or Ed.D.; internship in counseling psychology Services Provided Assessment and therapy for normal problems of life (e.g., divorce); psychological testing

Clinical psychologist

Training Ph.D. or Psy.D.; internship in clinical psychology Services Provided Diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders; can prescribe drugs in some settings after additional training; psychological testing

School psychologist

Training Ph.D., Ed.D., or master's degree; internship in school psychology Services Provided Assessment and treatment of school problems in children and adolescents; psychological testing

Translation

Transforming the insight into useful action

Decay

Unused information fades over time

Displacement

Utterances can be about objects and events that are not present.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Variable-interval schedules eliminate the pause after reinforcement typical of the fixed-interval schedule. On a variable-interval (VI) schedule, a reinforcer is given after the first correct response following a varying time of nonreinforced responses. response rate: Moderate Pattern of Responses: Stable, uniform response Resistance to Extinction: More resistance to extinction than fixed-interval schedule with same average interval.

stimulus motives

When arousal is too low, stimulus motives—such as curiosity and the motives to explore, to manipulate objects, and to play—cause humans and other animals to increase stimulation

Does the behavior cause distress to the person?

When people experience considerable emotional distress without any life experience that warrants it, they may be diagnosed as having a psychological disorder. Some people may be sad and depressed, and some anxious; others may be agitated or excited; and still others may be frightened, or even terrified, by delusions and hallucinations.

actor-observer effect

When people make judgments about others, they tend to exhibit the actor-observer effect, the general tendency to attribute others' behavior to dispositional factors more than we do to our own behavior

ystalled

a German word that roughly refers to the whole form pattern or configuration that a person perceives

Helicobacter pylori

a bacterium linked to stomach cancer, are far higher among Asian Americans and among residents of most Asian countries than is true for other groups

time out

a behavior modification technique in which a child who is misbehaving is removed for a short time from sources of positive reinforcement.

AIDS-related dementia

a disorder that is similar to Alzheimer's disease

Language

a means of communicating thoughts and feelings using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written symbols) arranged according to rules of grammar. expands our ability to think because it allows us to consider abstract concepts—such as justice—that are not represented by physical objects Further, thanks to language, we can share our knowledge and thoughts with one another in an extremely efficient way. Thus, whether spoken, written, or signed, language is our most important cognitive tool.

defense mechanism

a means used by the ego to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem a technique used to defend against axiety and to maintain self-esteem research supports Freud's view that the overuse of defense mechanisms can adversely affect mental health and interfere with psychotherapy lists and defines the various defense mechanisms along with examples of each one.

individualism/collectivism dimension

a measure of a culture's emphasis on either individual achievement or social relationships refers to how self-oriented members of a culture are in their behavior measures the degree to which people in the culture are integrated into groups

psychologist

a mental health professional who possesses a doctoral degree in psychology

Cognitive maps​

a mental representation or picture, of the maze but had not demonstrated their learning until they were reinforced

five-factor model

a model that describes personality using five broad dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of personality traits

motive

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

hippocampal region

a part of the limbic system, which includes the hippocampus itself and the underlying cortical areas, involved in the formation of semantic memories

amnesia

a partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological cause is a general term that can signify either a partial or total loss of memory.

adolescence

a period of transition from childhood to adulthood—did not exist until psychologist G. Stanley Hall first wrote about it in his book by that name in 1904. He portrayed this stage in life as one of "storm and stress," the inevitable result of the stresses that are associated with the major biological changes that occur during the period. Likewise, the social changes that happen during this period can be stressful

critical periods

a period so important to development that a harmful environmental influence at that time can keep a bodily structure from developing normally or can impair their intellectual or social development

suppression

a person makes a conscious, active attempt to put a painful, disturbing, anxiety- or guilt-provoking memory out of mind, but the person is still aware that the painful event occurred one form of motivated forgetting

avoidance-avoidance conflict

a person must choose between two undesirable alternatives

naive subject

a person who has agreed to participate in an experiment but is not aware that deception is being used to conceal its real purpose

expectancy

a person's belief that more effort will result in improved performance

information processing theory

a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories theory proposing that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software

biopsychosocial model

a perspective that focuses on the health as well as the illness and holds that both are determined by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors

Hypnosis

a procedure through which one person, the hypnotist, uses the power of suggestion to induce changes in thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, or behavior in another person, the subject.

sex reassignment

a process involving hormonal treatment, reconstructive surgery, and psychological counseling—in order to achieve a match between their minds and bodies Research shows that, following sex reassignment, transgender individuals are generally satisfied with the results and seldom regret their decision

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive deterioration of intellect and personality that results from widespread degeneration of brain cells About 50-60% of all cases of dementia result from Alzheimer's disease

Rorschach Inkblot Method

a projective test composed of 10 inkblots that the test taker is asked to describe; used to assess personality, make differential diagnoses, plan and evaluate treatment, and predict behavior The projective personality test created by Hermann Rorschach involving 10 ambiguous inkblots A projective test composed of ten inkblots that the test taker is asked to describe; used to assess personality, make differential diagnoses, plan and evaluate treatment, and predict behavior.

thalamus

a relay station sending signals from the rest of the body to the appropriate regions of the brain

catharsis

a release of emotional tension Emotional release the process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions.

case studies

a research method that involves the intensive examination of unusual people or organizations descriptions of situations or conflicts, the issues involved, and the decisions made studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals

heuristic

a rule of thumb that is derived from experience. Psychologists argue that we use heuristics to speed up the decision-making process, although we usually have some degree of awareness of the shortcomings of heuristics-based decisions

availability heuristic

a rule stating that the perceived probability of an event corresponds to the ease with which the event comes to mind.

In scaffolding

a teacher or parent adjusts the quality and degree of instruction to fit the child's present level of ability. It allows a child to gradually perform a task independently within her zone of proximal development.

door-in-the-face technique

a technique in which a large, unreasonable request is made first

maladaptive

a term that refers to behavior that is poorly suited to For example, developing the habit of waiting until the night before an exam to study for it is maladaptive To be abnormal, a behavior must be maladaptive and consistent with other criteria

Gestalt therapy

a therapy that was originated by Fritz Perls and that emphasizes the importance of clients' fully experiencing, in the present moment, their feelings, thoughts, and actions and then taking responsibility for them

biopsychosocial perspective

agrees that physical (biological) causes are of central importance but also recognizes the influence of psychological and social factors in the study, identification, and treatment of psychological disorders. Consequently, biopsychosocial psychologists often advocate treatment strategies that include both drugs and psychotherapy Causes: Psychological disorders result from a combination of biological, psychological, and social causes. Treatment: Employ eclectic treatments that include both drugs and psychotherapy

Practices in many cultures

allow individuals to deliberately induce altered states, often as part of tribal ceremonies or religious rituals.

heuristics, or "rules of thumb,"

allow us to make decisions quickly, with little effort.

nondeclarative memory

also called implicit memory, is the subsystem within long-term memory that stores procedures, motor skills, habits, and simple classically conditioned responses

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by repeated and uncontrolled (and often secretive) episodes of binge eating

perceptual set

an expectation of what will be perceived which can affect what actually is perceived

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need is one that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning

repression

another type of motivated forgetting unpleasant memories are literally removed from consciousness, and the person is no longer aware that the unpleasant event ever occurred

psychoactive drug

any substance that alters mood, perception, or thought. When psychoactive drugs, such as antidepressants, are approved for medical use, they are called controlled substances

ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

apparently acts as a satiety center that inhibits eating If the VMH is surgically removed, animals soon eat their way to gross obesity

REM sleep

appears to be essential to the consolidation of memories

insight therapies

approaches to psychotherapy based on the notion that psychological well-being depends on self-understanding

The subsystems of long-term memory

are (1) declarative memory, which holds facts and information (semantic memory) along with personal life experiences (episodic memory); and (2) nondeclarative memory, which consists of motor skills, conditioned behaviors, and other types of memories that are difficult or impossible to put into verbal form.

Three methods of measuring retention of information in memory

are (1) recall, where information must be supplied with few or no retrieval cues; (2) recognition, where information must simply be recognized as having been encountered before; and (3) the relearning method, which measures retention in terms of time saved when relearning material compared with the time required to learn it originally.

Trait theories

are attempts to explain personality and differences among people in terms of personal characteristics that are stable across situations.

Neonates

are born with reflexes that help them survive, and all of their senses are functional at birth

withdrawal symptoms

are both physical and psychological, are usually the exact opposite of the effects produced by the drug

Flashbulb memories

are different from others in that they always include source information, although the source information is subject to reconstruction changes over time.

central traits

are general characteristics that a person would include in a description of himself or another person traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions According to trait theory, traits that form the basis of personality. the major traits considered in forming impressions of others

Studies involving identical twins

are important to this debate because twins have exactly the same genes If identical twins raised together are found to be more alike on a certain trait than are fraternal twins raised together, then that trait is assumed to be more influenced by heredity.

social anxiety disorder (social phobia)

are intensely afraid of any social or performance situation in which they might embarrass or humiliate themselves in front of others—by shaking, blushing, sweating, or in some other way appearing clumsy, foolish, or incompetent.

Psychological disorders

are mental processes and/or behavior patterns that cause emotional distress and/or substantial impairment in functioning Psychologists in many domains study psychological disorders

Nightmares

are more frightening than sleep terrors because they occur during REM sleep and, as a result, are far more vivid

Aptitude tests

are norm-referenced tests that are designed to predict a person's probable achievement or performance in a particular setting or in reference to a specific task at some future time. For example, many colleges include scores on aptitude tests such as the SAT and the American College Testing Program (ACT) in the criteria they use to make admissions decisions. These tests are useful because they predict variations in indicators of college success, such as freshman GPAs and degree attainment (Schmitt et al., 2009). Similarly, when a company administers tests of mechanical ability to applicants who are seeking positions in which such ability is important, they use aptitude tests specifically designed for that purpose.

Intelligence tests

are norm-referenced tests that measure general intellectual ability. An individual's score is determined by how his responses compare to others of his or her age. Thus, intelligence tests are norm referenced. They attempt to measure all the aspects of intelligence that are included in the definition of intelligence that you learned a few pages back. Let's look at what distinguishes a good test from a not-so-good test.

Obsessions

are persistent, involuntary thoughts, images, or impulses that invade consciousness and cause a person great distress.

Traits

are personal qualities or characteristics that make it possible for us to face a wide variety of situational demands and deal with unforeseen circumstances

Autobiographical memories

are reconstructed memories that include factual, emotional, and interpretive elements. They are subject to positive bias.

attitudes

are relatively stable evaluations of persons, objects, situations, or issues, along a continuum ranging from positive to negative

Designer drugs

are so called because they are specially formulated to mimic the pleasurable effects of hallucinogenic stimulants such as mescaline without, supposedly, their negative side effects

B cells

are so named because they are produced in the bone marrow

Teratogens

are substances that can have a negative impact on prenatal development, causing birth defects and other problems. A teratogen's impact depends on both its intensity and the time during prenatal development when it is present. Teratogens generally have their most devastating consequences during the period of the embryo.

Phonemes

are the basic units of sound, and morphemes are the basic units of meaning

Morphemes

are the smallest units of meaning in a language. A few single phonemes serve as morphemes, such as the article "a" and the personal pronoun "I." The ending -s gives a plural meaning to a word and is thus a morpheme in English. Many words in English are single morphemes—book, word, learn, reason, and so on. In addition to root words, morphemes may be prefixes (such as re- in "relearn") or suffixes (such as -ful in "helpful"). The morpheme "book" (singular) becomes two morphemes in "books" (plural).

Phonemes

are the smallest units of sound in a spoken language—such as |b| or |s| in English. Three phonemes together form the sound of the word "sit": |s|, |i|, and |t|. Sounds that are represented by more than one letter are also phonemes, such as the |th| in "thirst" and the |ch| in "child."

Establishment of an intimate partnership and career development

are the social themes of early and middle adulthood. Most adults marry and have children, but they do so at later ages today than in the past. Couples exhibit more gender stereotypical behavior after becoming parents. Relationship satisfaction among new parents depends on factors that were present in the relationship before childbirth. Careers are important to life satisfaction, and many men and women occupy decision-making roles in middle adulthood. Research does not support the popular notions of empty nest syndrome and a midlife crisis. However, middle-aged adults often experience stressor overload as they mentor teen and young adult children while also caring for aging parents.

Social norms

are the standards of behavior and the attitudes that are expected of members of a particular group

Low-birth-weight babies

are those weighing less than 5.5 pounds

Adolescents with authoritarian parents

are typically the most psychologically distressed and the least self-reliant and self-confident.

Theorists

argue that individuals in some groups experience stereotype threat when they take tests, a factor that depresses their scores. Differences in cultural beliefs about the source and importance of intellectual ability may also contribute to group differences.

Critics

argue that therapists using hypnosis and guided imagery to help their patients recover repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse are actually implanting false memories in those patients. They are especially critical of claims of recovered memories in the first 3 years of life because the hippocampus isn't well developed enough to store long-term memories. Therapists who use these techniques believe that a number of psychological problems can be treated successfully by helping patients recover repressed memories of sexual abuse.

Advocates of Hall's approach

argued for a greater focus on the manifest content—the actual dream itself—which is seen as an expression of a broad range of the dreamer's concerns rather than as an expression of sexual impulses

foot-in-the-door technique

asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment

surface traits

aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person personality characteristics or attributes that can easily be inferred from observable behavior Personality traits that are evident from a person's behavior

B. F. Skinner (1957)

asserted that parents selectively criticize incorrect speech and reinforce correct speech through praise, approval, and attention.

dispositional attribution

assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones

situational attribution

attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck

Spearman

believed that intelligence is composed of a general ability factor (g) and a number of specific abilities (s).

Owls

between 2:00 and 7:00 a.m. display the reverse pattern cortisol peaks in owls' bodies in the late afternoon owls among children seems to be far lower than it is among adults, suggesting that learning plays a role in the development of the owl chronotype

Hilgard

called the monitoring function, when separated from conscious awareness, "the hidden observer." hypnosis induces a split, or dissociation, between two aspects of the control of consciousness: the planning function and the monitoring function.

schemas

can also introduce distortions into memory. Sir Frederick Bartlett's research demonstrated how reconstructive processing changes memory over time.

Trauma and disease in the brain

can cause anterograde amnesia (inability to learn new information) and/or retrograde amnesia (inability to remember a specific period of time in the past)

Framing

causes us to weigh a decision's gains and losses, and intuition relies on "gut feelings." Anchoring on one piece of information rather than considering all the factors that are relevant to a decision may cause distortions in thinking.

The nature-nurture debate

concerns the relative contributions of heredity and environment to variations in IQ test scores.

conditions of worth

conditions on which their positive regard hinges force children to live and act according to someone else's values rather than their own the conditions a person must meet in order to regard himself or herself positively the standards that the individual must live up to in order to receive positive regard from others according to Rogers, expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behavior

Garcia and Koelling

conducted a study in which rats formed an association between nausea and flavored water ingested several hours earlier. This represented an exception to the principle that the conditioned stimulus must be presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus. It also revealed that animals appear to be biologically predisposed to make certain associations, meaning associations cannot be conditioned between just any two stimuli.

Companionate love

consists of intimacy and commitment. This type of love is often found in marriages in which the passion has gone out of the relationship, but a deep affection and commitment remain.

curve of forgetting

consists of savings scores at various time intervals after the original learning a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually

conscious

consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time thoughts, feelings, sensations, or memories.

Infatuated love

consists solely of passion and is often what is felt as "love at first sight." Without intimacy and commitment, infatuated love may disappear suddenly.

The first sleep cycle

contains Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 of NREM sleep as well as a period of REM sleep

substance abuse

continued use of a substance after several episodes in which use of the substance has negatively affected an individual's work, education, and social relationships

Substance abuse

continued use of a substance that interferes with a person's major life roles at home, in school, at work, or elsewhere and contributes to legal difficulties or any psychological problems

binocular depth cues

cues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes

monocular depth cues

cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone

display rules

cultural rules that dictate how emotions should generally be expressed and where and when their expression is appropriate

The amount of melatonin released by the pineal gland

depends on the amount of light perceived by specialized photoreceptor cells on the retina.

4 goals of psychology

description, explanation, prediction, control

culture-fair intelligence test

designed to minimize cultural bias.

Each receptor

designed to the tech certain types of physical energy, such as light waves or sound waves This stimulation is then converted into a special code electro chemical signals whole moral impulses which the nervous system transmits to the brains coordinates.

Rules and definitions

determine formal concepts, whereas natural concepts arise out of everyday experiences.

Wechsler

developed tests for children and adults. Scores in Wechsler's tests are based on deviation from age-based averages.

Binet

developed the first standardized intelligence test.

neurological basis

differences in ability appear to be linked to a number of factors brain size neural density (connectivity) brain anatomy (frontal and parietal lobes) brain efficiency all kinds of physical pleasure have the same neurological basis

Roy john

director of the brain research laboratories in New York is a leading proponent of the new science of neuro metrics to precise electro physiological measurement neural functioning.

Working backward

discovers the steps to solving a problem by first defining the solution. In means-end analysis, the current state is compared to the desired state, and a series of steps are proposed to close the gap between the two. An algorithm is a strategy that always yields a correct solution.

Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

disorder: Intellectual Disability

somatic symptom disorders

disorders in which physical symptoms are present that are due to psychological causes rather than any known medical condition

Memory

disorders: Alzheimer's Disease

Motivation and Emotion

disorders: Eating Disorders

Health and Stress

disorders: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Jet lag and shift work

disrupt circadian rhythms, which can lead to sleep difficulties as well as reduced alertness during periods of wakefulness.

Freud

distinguished between conscious and unconscious experiences

Most memories

do not include source information, so memories for sources must be reconstructed.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions decrease activity in the central nervous system, slow down bodily functions, and reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation

antidepressant drugs

drugs that act as mood elevators for people with severe depression and are also prescribed to treat some anxiety disorders

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Sometimes we use priorities to

eliminate some of these options to speed up the decision-making process

archetypes

emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning According to Jung, emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning. Jung's collective, universal human memories

James

emphasized the continuous flow of thought and feeling in consciousness

John Watson

emphasized the notion that unconscious wishes, thoughts, and feelings are hidden from consciousness because they evoke too much anxiety

Modeling

ex: Learn to solve a math problem from teacher's demonstration​

Inhibition

ex: Show down when you see another driver receiving a ticket​

Inhibitory

ex: Slow down when you see another driver receiving a ticket

Disinhibition

ex: Waste time at work surfing the internet based on observation of coworkers who do so without being admonished by supervisors​

Motor Skills

example, riding a bicycle without thinking about it

classically conditioned responses

example: feeling nauseated at the sight or smell of a certain food

The symptoms of narcolepsy include

excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden attacks of REM sleep

Coping Strategies

f you're like most people, the stresses you have experienced have helped you develop some coping strategies. Coping refers to a person's efforts through action and thought to deal with demands perceived as taxing or overwhelming. Problem-focused coping is direct; it consists of reducing, modifying, or eliminating the source of stress itself. If you are getting a poor grade in history and appraise this as a threat, you may study harder, talk over your problem with your professor, form a study group with other class members, get a tutor, or drop the course. Emotion-focused coping involves reappraising a stressor to reduce its emotional impact. Research has shown that emotion-focused coping can be a very effective way of managing stress (Austenfeld & Stanton, 2004). If you lose your job, you may decide that it isn't a major tragedy and instead view it as a challenge, an opportunity to find a better job with a higher salary. Despite what you may have heard, ignoring a stressor—one form of emotion-focused coping—can be an effective way of managing stress. Researchers studied 116 people who had experienced heart attacks (Ginzburg, Soloman, & Bleich, 2002). All of the participants reported being worried about suffering another attack. However, those who tried to ignore their worries were less likely to exhibit anxiety-related symptoms such as nightmares and flashbacks. Other emotion-focused strategies, though, such as keeping a journal in which you write about things you feel grateful for, may be even more effective (Flinchbaugh, Moore, Chang, & May, 2012).

During the embryonic stage

from week 3 through week 8, all the major systems, organs, and structures form. In the fetal stage, from week 9 until birth, the fetus experiences rapid growth, and body systems, structures, and organs continue their development Fetuses can hear and remember sounds that they hear repeatedly.

Punishment

happens when either an added (positive) or a removed (negative) consequence leads to a reduction in the frequency of a behavior. Generally, punishment does not help people develop more appropriate behaviors, and it can cause fear, anger, hostility, and aggression in the punished person. Punishment is most effective when it is given immediately after undesirable behavior, when it is consistently applied, and when it is just intense enough to suppress the behavior.

midlife crisis

has been used to describe the angst middle-aged people feel over their lost youth. Research refutes the idea that middle-aged people go through such a crisis, however. More often, individuals between the ages of 40 and 60 are more likely to experience what psychologist David Almeida and his colleagues call stressor overload than either younger or older adults

Jeffrey Arnett

has proposed that the educational, social, and economic demands of modern culture have given rise to a new developmental period he calls emerging adulthood, the period from the late teens to the early 20s when individuals experiment with options prior to taking on adult roles (Arnett, 2011). Arnett's studies and those of other researchers indicate that, at least in the United States, young people do not tend to think of themselves as having fully attained adulthood until the age of 25 or so (Galambos, Turner, & Tilton-Weaver, 2005).

cortex

has the job of putting all the sensory information together and acting upon it. Different regions of the cortex fans like different neural impulses into different psychological experiences such as melody or touch.

Adoption studies

have also shown that infants from disadvantaged environments adopted into middle-class families have higher IQs than infants who remain in disadvantaged homes. Early educational experiences may also raise IQ scores. Also, IQ scores have been steadily rising over the past 70 years, presumably because of changes in standards of living.

Neuroimaging studies

have provided some support for the notion that emerging adulthood is a unique period of life. These studies suggest that the parts of the brain that underlie rational decision making, impulse control, and self-regulation mature during these years (Crone et al., 2006; Gogtay et al., 2004). As a result, during adolescence and early on in emerging adulthood, individuals make poorer decisions about matters such as risky behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex) than they do when these brain areas reach full maturity in the early to mid-20s.

Infants and young children

have the longest sleep time and largest percentages of REM and slow-wave sleep

secondhand smoke

have twice the risk of heart attack of those who are not exposed

bottom up processing

haven't really seen it before and you're taking it all in.

Receptors

highly specialized cells in the sense organs that detect and respond to sensory stimuli light, sound odors and transducer or convert them into neural impulses

hypothalamus

his type of Atlantic region is conserved across all vertebrates. We have one as the fish do. In the brain region the hypothalamus cells containing a particular singling peptide in this fish is eight times larger, they send out eight times as much signal

Short-term (working) memory

holds about seven (plus or minus two) unrelated items of information for less than 30 seconds without rehearsal. Short-term memory also acts as a mental workspace for carrying out any mental activity.

Sensory memory

holds information coming in through the senses for up to 2 seconds, just long enough for the nervous system to begin to process it.

nativist perspective

human brain has an innate capacity for acquiring language (language acquisition device), possibly during a critical period of time after birth; and that children are born with a universal sense of grammar (Noam Chomsky). the view that language development is a result of an inborn capacity to learn language

sociocognitive theory of hypnosis

hypnotized people are not in an altered state, but they behave in a way that is expected in that situation

The three parenting styles

identified by Baumrind are authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. Research suggests that the authoritative style is the most effective and is associated with psychosocial competence in children. Children with authoritarian parents are typically the most anxious and the least socially competent. Permissive parenting is least effective and is often associated with adolescent behavior problems. Friendships begin by age 3 or 4 based on shared activities. Later friendships are based on mutual trust. Peer groups provide children with social models and objective measures against which children can evaluate their own traits and behavior.

Specialized cells (photoreceptors)

in the retina at the back of each eye respond to the amount of light reaching the eye and relay this information via the optic nerve to the SCN

goal setting

in which supervisors provide employees with specific goals, such as providing salespeople with goals that are defined in dollar amounts or numbers of units sold, which leads to higher levels of performance than simply telling people to do their best

structured interview

in which the content of the questions and even the manner in which they are asked are carefully planned ahead of time

means-end analysis

in which the current position is compared with a desired goal, and a series of steps are formulated and then taken to close the gap between the two

The components of emotional intelligence

include awareness of one's own emotions, an ability to manage those emotions, self-motivation, empathy, and the ability to handle relationships.

Negative influences on prenatal development

include drugs, environmental hazards, poor maternal nutrition, and maternal illness

Obstacles to problem solving

include functional fixedness, the inability to see new uses for familiar objects, and mental set, using a previously successful problem-solving strategy without determining whether it is appropriate for a new problem.

Syntax

includes all of a language's rules for combining words into phrases and sentences.

Liking

includes only one of the love components—intimacy. In this case, liking is not used in a trivial sense. It includes true friendships in which a person feels close to another but not intense passion or long-term commitment.

Semantics

includes the rules for combining units of meaning such as morphemes, words, and sentences.

Amphetamines

increase arousal, relieve fatigue, improve alertness, suppress the appetite, and give a rush of energy

Psychoactive drugs

increase the availability of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens Beyond that, each drug has a unique influence on a specific neurotransmitter or group of neurotransmitters.

Obesity

increases a person's chances of developing several chronic diseases

pheromones

indicate that increases in men's testosterone levels are linked to the pheromones, odor-producing hormones, that are found in women's vaginal secretions at the time of ovulation. Thus, it is likely that men are the most rapidly aroused in the presence of female partners who are ovula.

information processing

individual components are bits of data are combined until like complete perception is formed.

Violence in both television programs and electronic games can

induce feelings of hostility and lessen viewers' and players' capacity for empathy. However, games may provide young adult males with socially acceptable outlets for such feelings.

stranger anxiety

infants develop a fear of strangers called stranger anxiety, which increases in intensity until the first birthday and then declines in the second year Stranger anxiety is greater in an unfamiliar setting, when the parent is not close at hand, and when a stranger abruptly approaches or touches the child.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

infections spread primarily through sexual contact

Culturally based schemas

influence reconstructive memory in the same way that expertise does. In addition, cultural schemas that emphasize the valued status of information such as oral histories encourage source monitoring that protects the information from the distorting effects of reconstruction.

Serotonin

influences cognitive performance (including memory), as well as moods, sleep cycles, and the ability to control impulses

instrumentality

instrumentality

Discrimination

involves learning to distinguish between a stimulus that has been reinforced and other stimuli that may be very similar develops when the response to the original stimulus is reinforced but responses to similar stimuli are not reinforced

cardinal trait

is a major theme of a person's life a characteristic or feature that is so pervasive the person is almost identified with it a personality trait so basic that all of a person's activities relate to it a trait that is so pervasive that the person is almost identified with the trait

concept

is a mental category used to represent a class or group of objects, people, organizations, events, situations, or relations that share common characteristics or attributes. Furniture, tree, student, college, and wedding are all examples of concepts. As fundamental units of thought, concepts are useful tools that help us organize our perceptions of the world and to think and communicate with speed and efficiency.

algorithm

is a problem-solving strategy that always leads to a correct solution if it is applied appropriately.

Hypnosis

is a procedure through which a hypnotist uses the power of suggestion to induce changes in the thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, or behavior of a subject It has been used most successfully for the control of pain

Lucid dreaming

is a set of techniques that enables dreamers to exert cognitive control over the content of their dreams.

Insomnia

is a sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep, waking too early, or sleep that is light, restless, or of poor quality.

Sleep apnea

is a sleep disorder in which a sleeper's breathing stops and the person must awaken briefly to breathe Its symptoms are excessive daytime sleepiness and loud snoring

panic attack

is a sudden feeling of fear in which the heart pounds, the body shakes, and the person has a choking sensation Panicky feelings that have known cues, such as the feeling a person might get while driving through an intersection where she once had a traffic accident, are more often viewed as the result of learning rather than as signs of a disorder

motivation

is a very broad term that encompasses all the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior.

mother's touch

is absolutely necessary to maintain normal growth and development

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

is an increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses that lasts for hours or longer does not take place unless both the sending neurons and the receiving neurons are activated at the same time by intense stimulation Also, the receiving neuron must be depolarized (ready to fire) when the stimulation occurs, or LTP will not happen LTP is common in the hippocampal region, which, as you have learned, is essential in the formation of declarative memories

Drive-reduction theory

is based on the biological concept of homeostasis—the natural tendency of a living organism to maintain a state of internal balance, or equilibrium. When the equilibrium becomes disturbed (by a biological need such as thirst), a drive (internal state of arousal) emerges. Then the organism is motivated to take action to satisfy the need, thus reducing the drive and restoring equilibrium. Drive-reduction theory assumes that humans are always motivated to reduce tension.

Conformity

is changing or adopting a behavior or an attitude in an effort to be consistent with the social norms of a group or the expectations of other people

Avoidance learning

is desirable when it leads to a beneficial response, such as buckling a seat belt to stop the annoying sound of a buzzer. It is maladaptive when it occurs in response to fear. For example, fear of speaking to a group may lead you to skip class on the day your oral report is scheduled.

The hippocampus itself

is involved primarily in the formation of episodic memories; the rest of the hippocampal region is involved in forming semantic memories.

Learning by observing the behavior of others (called models) and the consequences of that behavior

is known as observational learning. We learn from models when we assume that the consequences they experience will happen to us if we perform their behaviors.

Methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA)

is known to impair a variety of cognitive functions, including memory, sustained attention, analytical thinking, and self-control the drug is believed to have devastating effects on the critically important neurotransmitter serotonin

Permissive parenting

is least effective and is often associated with adolescent drug use and behavior problems. The adolescent peer group (usually composed of teens with similar interests) provides a vehicle for developing social skills and a standard of comparison against which teens' attributes can be evaluated.

LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)

is lysergic acid diethylamide, sometimes referred to simply as "acid." The average LSD "trip" lasts for 10 to 12 hours and usually produces extreme perceptual and emotional changes, including visual hallucinations and feelings of panic

Authoritative parenting

is most effective and is associated with psychosocial competence in all racial and ethnic groups.

Exposure

is most harmful in the period of the embryo during critical periods of development for the various body structures.

Standardization

is necessary so that individuals' scores can be compared

Psychologist David Buss

is one of the best-known evolutionary psychologists. His research shows that, across many cultures, men and women have about the same capacity for jealousy (Buss et al., 1990). However, they differ in what it is that makes them jealous. For men, sexual infidelity is more important than emotional infidelity. For women, emotional infidelity—such as finding out that their partner is still talking to and sharing confidences with another potential lover—is more likely to cause feelings of jealousy than sexual infidelity would. Interestingly, too, these conclusions are based on two different kinds of evidence. The first set of findings comes from studies that use questions such as the ones you just answered about jealousy and infidelity (e.g., Buss et al., 1990; Buss, Larsen, Westen, & Semmelroth, 1992). Another derives from research that measures men's and women's physiological stress levels when they are thinking about infidelity (e.g., Buss et al., 1992). Men show higher stress levels when they think about sexual infidelity, but women's levels are higher when they think about emotional infidelity.

Alcohol

is perhaps the most frequently abused substance of all, and the health costs of alcohol abuse are staggering—in fatalities, medical bills, lost work, and family problems.

The reliability of eyewitness testimony

is reduced when witnesses view a photograph of the suspect before viewing the lineup, when members of a lineup don't sufficiently resemble each other; when members of a lineup are viewed at the same time rather than one by one, and when the perpetrator's race is different from that of the eyewitness.

experiential intelligence

is reflected in creative thinking and problem solving. People with high experiential intelligence are able to solve novel problems and deal with unusual and unexpected challenges. Another aspect of experiential intelligence is finding creative ways to perform common daily tasks more efficiently and effectively.

Syntax

is the aspect of grammar that specifies the rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and sentences. The rules of word order differ from one language to another. For example, an important rule of syntax in English is that adjectives usually come before nouns, as in "yellow hat." In Spanish, in contrast, the noun usually comes before the adjective, and Spanish speakers say "sombrero (hat) amarillo (yellow)."

Persistence

is the faithful and continued effort put forth in working toward a goal

Aggression

is the intentional infliction of physical or psychological harm on others.

Overregularization

is the kind of error that results when a grammatical rule is misapplied to a word that has an irregular plural or past tense (Marcus, 1996). Thus, children who have correctly used the words "went," "came," and "did" incorrectly apply the rule for past tenses and begin to say "goed," "comed," and "doed." What the parents see as a regression in speech actually means that the child has acquired a grammatical rule.

Consummate love

is the only type of love that includes intimacy, passion, and commitment. It is the most complete form of love and represents the ideal love relationship for which many people strive.

Consolidation

is the physiological process by which encoded information is stored in memory the process by which memories become stable in the brain

Insight

is the sudden realization of the relationship of the elements in a problem situation that makes the solution apparent; this solution is easily learned and transferred to new problems.

The state-dependent memory effect

is the tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological or psychological state as when the information was learned.

Pragmatics

is the term psycholinguists use to refer to aspects of language such as intonation, the rising and falling patterns that are used to express meaning. For example, think about how you would say the single word cookie to express each of the following meanings: "Do you want a cookie?" or "What a delicious looking cookie!" or "That's a cookie." The subtle differences reflect your knowledge of the pragmatic rules of English. Questions end with a rising intonation, whereas statements end with a falling intonation. Pragmatic rules also come into play when you speak in one way to your friend and another to your professor. That is, the social rules associated with language use are also included in pragmatics.

insanity

is used to label those who behave abnormally, but mental health professionals do not use this term. It is a legal term used by the courts to declare people not legally responsible for their acts

At the conventional level

judgments of right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of others

Latent Learning​

learning could occur without apparent reinforcement and not be demonstrated until the organism was motivated to do so

Permissive parents

make few rules or demands and usually do not enforce those that are made. They allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior. Children raised in this manner are the most immature, impulsive, and dependent, and they seem to be the least self-controlled and self-reliant

Authoritarian parents

make the rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish misbehavior (often physically), and value obedience to authority. Rather than giving a rationale for a rule, authoritarian parents consider "because I said so" a sufficient reason for obedience. Parents using this parenting style tend to be uncommunicative, unresponsive, and somewhat distant, and Baumrind (1967) found preschool children disciplined in this manner to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy The authoritarian style has been associated with low intellectual performance and lack of social skills, especially in boys

survival of the fittest

means that those animals were best able to adapt to the challenges of their environment has on their genes to their offspring

Intelligence tests

measure general intellectual ability.

declarative memory

memory of knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed aka explicit memory There are two types of declarative memory, episodic memory and semantic memory

sensory memory

memory system that holds information from the senses for a period ranging from only a fraction of a second to about 2 seconds

retrieval failure

not remembering something one is certain of knowing people are certain they know something but are not able to retrieve the information when they need it tip-of-the-tongue

proximity

objects that are close together in space and time are usually perceived as belonging together

similarity

objects with similar characteristics are perceived as a human. Tendency to group visual, auditory or other stimuli

think

obscures the fact that thinking actually involves a number of coordinated subprocesses

Maturation

occurs naturally according to the infant's own genetically determined biological timetable of development. Many motor milestones, such as sitting, standing, and walking (shown in Figure 8.4), depend on the growth and development of the central nervous system.

Interference

occurs when information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder the ability to remember it.

Proactive interference

occurs when information or experiences already stored in long-term memory hinder the ability to remember newer information the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Underextension

occurs, too; this is when children fail to apply a word to other members of the class. The family's poodle is a "doggie," but the German shepherd next door is not.

Conception

of course, marks the beginning of prenatal development and typically takes place in one of the fallopian tubes. Over the next 2 weeks, the zygote, the cell that results from the union of a sperm and an ovum, travels to the uterus and attaches itself to the uterine wall. This stage is known as the period of the zygote or the germinal stage. At the end of this stage, the zygote is only the size of the period at the end of this sentence.

survivor guilt

one factor in a cluster of variables known as moral injury, because they lived while others died

conservation

one of the most important concepts that Piaget studied was conservation, the understanding that the quantity of matter remains the same despite being rearranged or changed in appearance.

sedentary lifestyle

one that includes a job at which one spends most of the time sitting and less than 20 minutes of exercise three times per week—is the primary modifiable risk factor contributing to death from coronary heart disease

fully functioning person

one who is functioning at an optimal level and living fully and spontaneously according to his or her own inner value system.

Crystallized intelligence

one's verbal ability and accumulated knowledge—tends to increase over the life span.

the third cycle of sleep

only Stages 2 and 3 are present, along with a period of REM sleep

Females

outperform males in reading and writing

anchoring

overestimation of the importance of a factor by focusing on it top the exclusion of other relevant factors

social-cognitive theory

people learn attitudes of prejudice and hatred the same way they learn other attitudes, through modeling and reinforcement

tactile

pertaining to sense of touch

People reconstruct memories

piecing them together using schemas to organize fragments of information, a process that has both advantages and disadvantages

schemes

plans of action, based on previous experiences to be used in similar circumstances

Types of responses acquired through classical conditioning include

positive and negative emotional responses (including likes, dislikes, fears, and phobias), responses to environmental cues associated with drug use, responses to advertisements, and conditioned immune system responses. Studies of classical conditioning in everyday life indicate that neutral stimuli cannot serve as conditioned stimuli unless they have authentic connections to unconditioned stimuli (ecological relevance).

uplifts

positive experiences in life such as getting a better grade on an assignment than you expected, may neutralize the effects of many hassles

Both positive (added) and negative (subtracted, removed) reinforcement increase behavior

positive reinforcement, a behavior occurs more frequently because it produces a desired consequence. In negative reinforcement, a behavior is learned because it makes an undesirable condition or stimulus go away. Primary reinforcers are consequences that satisfy basic needs. Secondary reinforcers are those that have some kind of association with a primary reinforcer.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

contextual intelligence

practical intelligence, might be equated with common sense or "street smarts." People with high contextual intelligence are survivors, who capitalize on their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses. They either adapt well to their environment, change the environment so that they can succeed, or, if necessary, find a new environment.

Cross model perception

process whereby the brain integrates information from more than one sense

Graphing the frequencies of a large number of IQ scores

produces a symmetrical curve (the normal curve) shaped like a bell. Half of scores fall above and half below the mean. Terman's longitudinal study revealed that, in general, gifted individuals enjoy better physical and mental health and are more successful than members of the general population. To be classified as having an intellectual disability, an individual must have an IQ score below 70 and show a severe deficiency in everyday adaptive functioning.

pineal gland

produces melatonin

Meditation

promotes relaxation, reduces arousal, or expands consciousness. It may also help prevent and treat cardiovascular disease.

Piaget

proposed that humans construct schemes, or general action plans, on the basis of experiences. Schemes change through assimilation and accommodation until they work effectively in the real world may have underestimated the abilities of children and overestimated those of adults, but research supports the sequence of cognitive development that he proposed.

Gestalt principles of grouping

psychologists believe that when people see figures or hear sounds they organize or integrate them according to the simplest and most basic, basic arrangements possible

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget

psychologists have gained insights into the cognitive processes of children. Piaget studied children's responses to problems. He was not interested in whether children solved such problems correctly. Instead, he sought to understand the reasoning processes that led them to their solutions. Piaget studied was conservation, He asserted that a child had not developed the concept of conservation unless she could both solve a wide variety of conservation tasks correctly and logically explain her solutions. According to Piaget, cognitive development begins with a few basic schemes—plans of action to be used in similar circumstances Piaget used the term assimilation to refer to the mental process by which we incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information into existing schemes. Piaget used the term accommodation for the mental process of modifying existing schemes and creating new ones to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information. according to Piaget ,changes in schemes underlie four stages of cognitive development, each of which reflects a qualitatively different way of reasoning and understanding the world. The stages occur in a fixed sequence in which the accomplishments of one stage provide the foundation for the next stage.

Tversky & Kahneman

psychologists that identified the two heuristics that lead problem solvers astray

Psychodynamic therapies

psychotherapies that attempt to uncover repressed childhood experiences that are thought to explain a patient's current difficulties

Autobiographical memories

recollections that a person includes in an account of his or her own life memories of one's own experiences, including one's thoughts and emotions

Intensity

refers to the focused energy and attention applied to achieve the goal.

Semantics

refers to the meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences. The same word can have different meanings depending on how it is used in sentences: "I don't mind." "Mind your manners." "He has lost his mind." Or consider another example: "Loving to read, the young girl read three books last week." Here, the word "read" is pronounced two different ways and, in one case, is the past tense.

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

primary drives

sates of tension or arousal that arise from a biological need and are unlearned

Early psychologists

saw consciousness, or awareness, as psychological in nature

extraversion

second dimension ranges from people who are outgoing to those who are shy

Males

seem to do better in science, math, and some spatial tasks. In general, females get higher grades and are more self-disciplined. Parents may influence gender differences in math performance by characterizing high performance in girls as resulting from effort and in boys as resulting from innate ability.

thalamus

send the information to a succession of areas in the corner.

Phonological awareness

sensitivity to the sound patterns of a language and how they are represented as letters, is particularly important

Authoritative parents

set high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and at the same time encourage open communication and independence. They are willing to discuss rules and supply rationales for them. Knowing why the rules are necessary makes it easier for children to internalize them and to follow them, whether in the presence of their parents or not. Authoritative parents are generally warm, nurturant, supportive, and responsive, and they show respect for their children and their opinions. Their children are more mature, happy, self-reliant, self-controlled, assertive, socially competent, and responsible than their peers. The authoritative parenting style is associated with higher academic performance, independence, higher self-esteem, and internalized moral standards in middle childhood and adolescence

Watson

showed that fear could be classically conditioned by presenting a white rat to Little Albert along with a loud, frightening noise, thereby conditioning the child to fear the white rat.

dyssomnias

sleep disorders in which the timing, quantity, or quality of sleep is impaired

parasomnias

sleep disturbances in which behaviors and physiological states that normally take place only in the waking state occur while a person is sleeping

expertise

specialized skill or technical knowledge; know-how; expertness extensive amount of relevant background knowledge

schedules of reinforcement

specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

Kübler-Ross

suggested five stages of dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Contrary to what many believe, people who openly exhibit signs of intense grieving do not necessarily get through the grief process more quickly than others.

context effect

suggested that many elements of the physical setting in which a person learns information are encoded along with the information and become part of the memory the tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information

Guilford

suggests that creativity involves divergent thinking. Tests used to measure creativity include the Unusual Uses Tests, the Consequences Test, and the Remote Associates Test.

set point theory

suggests that each person is genetically programmed to carry a certain amount of body weight

cognitive perspective

suggests that faulty thinking or distorted perceptions can contribute to some types of psychological disorders. Treatment based on this perspective is aimed at changing thinking, which presumably will lead to a change in behavior. Moreover, the cognitive perspective offers advice that may prevent psychological disorders. For example, one step toward healthy thinking is to recognize and avoid five cognitive traps: 1. setting unrealistic standards for yourself ("If I can't get into Harvard, I won't go to college at all."); 2. negative "what-if" thinking ("What if I lose my job?"); 3. turning a single negative event, such as a poor grade, into a catastrophe ("I'll never pass this course."); 4. judging anything short of perfection to be a failure ("The cake turned out a bit lopsided, so I threw it out and baked another one."); and 5. demanding perfection in yourself and others ("I broke up with him because he refused to call me at least once a day."). If your happiness depends on any of these conditions, you are setting the stage for disappointment or even depression. Causes: Faulty thinking or distorted perceptions can cause psychological disorders Treatment: Change faulty, irrational, and/or negative thinking, Beck's cognitive therapy Rational-emotive therapy

some psychologists

support the cognitive theory of dreaming, which claims that dreaming is thinking while asleep; others support the activation-synthesis hypothesis, which claims that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep and others support the evolutionary theory of dreaming, which says that vivid REM dreams enable people to rehearse the skills they need to fend off predators.

dynamic assessment

supports the environmental explanation (Murphy, 2011). In dynamic assessment, examinees are taught the goal and format of each IQ subtest before they are actually tested.

cerebral

surrounding these evolutionary older more primitive structures that make up the limbic system the largest part of the brain, it's here that nerve impulses get translated into images, symbols words and ideas. divided into two halves. The cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by millions of nerve fibers that make up the corpus callosum a conduit for messages traveling between the right and left sides of the brain.

limbic system

system which contains several structures that make up the old mammalian brain that we have in common with other mammals. It maintains the balance of the body's internal workings its temperature blood pressure and sugar levels among others. It also regulates emotions the powerful drives of self preservation and sexual desire.

visual perception

takes place in three areas in the retina, or the back surface of the eye in the pathways through the brain and in the part of the cortex at the back of the brain responsible for visual processing the visual cortex.

Achievement tests

tap knowledge and skills that a person has acquired through experiences such as formal education up to the point at which the test is taken. Norm-referenced achievement tests compare individual students' scores to the average score of all students at their grade level. Criterion-referenced achievement tests compare the performance of an individual or group against a predetermined standard. For example, a goal that states "all children in the fourth grade will be able to multiply two-digit numbers with 70% accuracy" is such a standard.

Memories of threatening situations

tend to be more powerful and enduring than ordinary memories because of the hormones associated with the strong emotions aroused in such situations.

psychologists

tend to equate the subjective experience of consciousness with objective observations of what's actually happening in the brain during states such as sleep and hypnosis

hose uncomfortable with touching

tend to have lower self esteem and are generally more socially withdrawn.

Crystallized intelligence

tends to increase over the life span; fluid intelligence peaks in the early 20s and declines slowly as people age.

glucocorticoids

that increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels, supplying a burst of energy that helps the person deal with the stressful situation

Erikson proposed

that individuals progress through eight psychosocial stages that span the entire period from birth to death. Each stage is defined by a conflict involving the individual's relationship with the social environment. A positive resolution of each conflict makes it more likely that an individual will be successful in later stages.

Harlow found

that the basis of attachment in infant monkeys is contact comfort

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

reliability

the ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same people are tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative

Depth perception

the ability to perceive the visual world in three dimensions and to judge distances accurately.

perceptual constancy

the actual size shape orientation and brightness of an object are perceived as remained relatively constant, even when there are extreme variations in the image it projects. shadow falls on our newspaper. We know that paper is in turning darker. That's because the hallmark of perception is our ability to impose stability on the constantly changing flow of sensations we experience.

actors

the basic unit for the analysis of international politics; can be individuals or groups of people with common interests

cortisol

the biochemical substance that ramps up our bodies' alertness in emergencies

endorphins

the body's own natural painkillers, which block pain and produce feeling of well being

If the conditioned stimulus (tone) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (food)

the conditioned response (salivation) eventually disappears, a process called extinction. That response can reappear in a weaker form if the organism is exposed to the conditioned stimulus again after a period of rest, which is a process called spontaneous recovery. Generalization occurs when an organism makes a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli.

sexual orientation

the direction of an individual's sexual preference, erotic feelings, and sexual activity. In heterosexuals, the human sexual response is oriented toward members of the opposite sex; in homosexuals, toward those of the same sex; and in bisexuals, toward members of both sexes. Surveys designed to measure the prevalence of homosexual and bisexual orientations are somewhat inconsistent. Theories and research on the causes of homosexuality indicate that both genes and environment contribute to sexual orientation.

reality principle

the ego acts according to this tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only when negative consequences will not result

Examples of a multitasking environment

the environment that we create for ourselves when we attempt to manage several different sources of information at once effects: -No positive effects -Diminished ability to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information

functional fixedness

the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems

illusion

the false perception or miss perception of an actual stimulus in the environment

anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

the front part of a band that surrounds the corpus callosum, works with the cortex to suppress the emotional cues that are associated with the immediate reward

activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming

the hypothesis that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep

facial-feedback hypothesis

the idea that the muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions produced the corresponding emotions (for example, smiling makes on feel happy)

audience effects

the impact of passive spectators on performance

coaction effects

the impact on performance caused by the presence of other people engaged in the same task.

forgetting

the inability to bring to mind information that was previously remembered

According to Bowlby

the infant has usually developed a strong attachment to the mother at age 6 to 8 months.

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)

the ingredient in marijuana that produces the high, remains in the body for 2 to 4 weeks can interfere with concentration, logical thinking, formation of new memories, and retrieval of stored memories Studies comparing marijuana users who began taking the drug before age 17 with those who started later show that early marijuana use is associated with a somewhat smaller brain volume and a lower percentage of the all-important gray matter in the brain's cortex

taste aversion

the intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods that have been associated with nausea or discomfort

formal academic knowledge

the knowledge we acquire in school

working memory

the memory subsystem that we use when we try to understand information, remember it, or use it to solve a problem or communicate with someone short-term memory is one component of a broader system of temporary storage structures and processes known as working memory

Testosterone

the most important androgen, influences the development and maintenance of male sex characteristics, as well as sexual motivation. Males must have a sufficient level of testosterone to maintain sexual interest and have an erection. Females, too, need small amounts of testosterone in the bloodstream to maintain sexual interest and responsiveness (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1995). Deficiencies in sexual interest and activity can sometimes be reversed in both men and women with the use of testosterone patches or ointments (Meyer, 1997). However, researchers point out that many hormones work in concert with testosterone to regulate the sexual response cycle and warn against the assumption that pharmacological manipulation of testosterone alone is adequate to solve problems with sexual functioning (Halaris, 2003). You will learn more about the topic of sexual dysfunctions in Chapter 12.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. widely used structured personality test designed to assess symptoms of mental disorders a well-researched, clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems

linguistic relativity hypothesis

the notion that the language a person speaks largely determines the nature of that person's thoughts

Decay theory

the oldest theory of forgetting, assumes that information that has not been retrieved from memory for a long time may fade and ultimately disappear entirely

decay theory

the oldest theory of forgetting, which holds that memories, if not used, fade with time and ultimately disappear altogether

menarche

the onset of menstruation—which occurs, on average, between the ages of 12 and 13, although from 9 to 16 is considered the normal range

Semantic memory

the other type of declarative memory, is memory for general knowledge, or objective facts and information

Amygdala

the pathway into the limbic system was sensory impulses

self-efficacy

the perception people have of their ability to perform competently whatever they attempt

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate the perception that one controls one's own fate

resilience

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma the capacity to overcome potentially damaging early experiences—than psychoanalytic theory might predict. the rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats

resilience

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma the rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats

mere-exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

stress

the physiological and psychological response to a condition that threatens or challenges an individual and requires some form of adaptation or adjustment

source monitoring

the practice of intentionally keeping track of the sources of incoming information Source monitoring is particularly important when you are working on a research paper This is so because the memory system tends to focus on the meaning of information rather than its source, especially when forming semantic memories The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

the predictable sequence of reactions that organisms show in response to stressors. It consists of three stages: the alarm stage, the resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage

Gender schema theorists apply

the principles of information-processing theory to gender role development. They assert that a child's self-labeling as a boy or a girl initiates gender schema development. While the gender schema is being constructed, children think rigidly about gender roles but become more flexible once they have a better understanding of them.

assimilation

the process by which new objects, events, experiences, or information is incorporated into existing schemes.

self actualization

the process by which people achieve their full potential developing to one's fullest potential according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential the developmental level at which each individual seeks to fulfill his or her fullest potential. According to Maslow, the personality of a self-actualizing individual is continually changing, growing, and improving as the person strives to become all that he or she can be

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been stored in memory

attribution

the process of making inferences about the causes of human behavior.

everyday memory

the process of remembering as it exists in real life rather than psychologists' laboratories—often resembles a multicolored, multitextured work of art Term applied to a movement within memory to extend the study of memory from the confines of the laboratory to the world outside

libido

the psychic energy that fuels the entire personality; yet, the id can only fantasize and demand

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Pavlov allowed the dog to rest for 20 minutes and then brought it back to the laboratory. He found that the dog would again salivate to the tone also occurs in operant conditioning

syntax

the rules governing how words are ordered in a sentence. When a third word is added to a sentence, it usually fills in the word missing from the two-word sentence (for example, "mama drink milk"). After using telegraphic speech for a time, children gradually begin to add modifiers to make their sentences more precise.

Behaviorism (Watson)

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

orgasm

the shortest of the phases, is the highest point of sexual pleasure, marked by a sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension. Involuntary muscle contractions may seize the entire body during orgasm, and the genitals contract rhythmically. Orgasm is a two-stage experience for the male. First is his awareness that ejaculation is near and that he can do nothing to stop it; second is the ejaculation itself, when semen is released from the penis in forceful spurts. The experience of orgasm in women builds in much the same way as for men. Marked by powerful, rhythmic contractions, the female's orgasm usually lasts longer than that of the male. About 40 to 50% of women regularly experience orgasm during intercourse The orgasm gives way to the resolution phase

Difference threshold

the smallest increase or decrease in physical stimulation required to produce a difference in sensation that is noticeable 50% of the time

The three main theories proposed to explain hypnosis are

the sociocognitive theory, the neodissociation theory, and the theory of dissociated control

Cognitive-developmental theorists emphasized

the stages of gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy.

attachment

the strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver

developmental psychology

the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span Developmental psychologists use the same research methods that their colleagues in other fields do—observation, surveys, case studies, correlational studies, and experiments.

psycholinguists

the study of how language is acquired, produced, and used and how the sounds and symbols of language are translated into meaning. Psycholinguists use specific terms for each of the five basic components of language.

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

positive bias

the tendency for pleasant autobiographical memories to be more easily recalled than unpleasant ones and memories of unpleasant events to become more emotionally positive over time

racial patterning

the tendency of groups of people to maintain their collective identities through shared behavior patterns (e.g., diet, leisure activities, multigenerational living arrangements) have twice the risk of heart attack of those who are not exposed

closure

the tendency to complete figures with gaps in them, even though the part and the triangles missing, we still perceived it as a close triangle.

Perceptual consistency

the tendency to perceived objects as maintaining stable properties such as size, shape, brightness and color, despite differences and distance viewing angle and lighting.

recency effect

the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle

theory of dissociated control

the theory that hypnosis weakens the control that the executive function exerts over other subsystems of consciousness

circadian theory of sleep

the theory that sleep is evolved to keep humans out of harms way during the night; also known as the evolutionary or adaptive theory

convergent thinking

the type of mental activity measured by IQ and achievement tests; it consists of solving precisely defined, logical problems for which there is a known correct answer. For instance, convergent thinking would be required to answer a question such as "How much surplus food is grown in each of the world's developed nations?"

id

the unconscious system of the personality, which contains the life and death instincts and operates on the pleasure principle; source of the libido The id contains (1) the life instincts, which are the sexual instincts and the biological urges, such as hunger and thirst, and (2) the death instinct, which accounts for aggressive and destructive impulses

Biofeedback

the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can learn, with practice, to exercise control over them

With physical drug dependence

the user develops a drug tolerance, and so larger and larger doses of the drug are needed to get the same effect or high

life events approach

the view that a person's state of well-being can be threatened by major life changes

evolutionary theory of dreaming

the view that vivid REM dreams enable people to rehearse the skills needed to fend off threats and predators

hallucinogen persisting perception disorder

the visual cortex becomes highly stimulated whenever the individuals shut their eyes, causing them to experience chronic visual hallucinations whenever they try to sleep

framing

the way information is presented to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential loss as the outcome

Environmental Cues

the way you use space, distance, and territoriality communicates messages about you and your relationships Television, computer or video games, and even food can be powerful distractors that consume hours of valuable study time.

suggests that each person is genetically programmed to carry a certain amount of body weight

the weight the body maintains when one is trying neither to gain nor to lose weight—is affected by the number of fat cells in the body and by metabolic rate, both of which are influenced by the genes

cognitive theory of dreaming

theory proposing that dreaming can be understood by applying the same cognitive concepts used to study the waking mind suggested that dreaming is simply thinking while asleep

psychodynamic

therapies are direct descendants of Freud's techniques A psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts term describes the perspective on psychology in which inner feeling and unconscious tensions are emphasized

Cognitive behavior therapies (CBTs)

therapies that assume maladaptive behavior can result from irrational thoughts, beliefs, and ideas

secondary sex characteristics

those physical characteristics not directly involved in reproduction that distinguish the mature male from the mature female. In girls, the breasts develop, and the hips round; in boys, the voice deepens, and facial and chest hair appears; and in both sexes, there is growth of pubic and underarm (axillary) hair

Cultural bias

threatens the validity of a test, so test makers must reduce it as much as possible.

mastery

to know something without error

predict

to say what will happen before it occurs

Physiological signals from the woman's body, the fetus, and the placenta

trigger labor, a three-stage process. Low-birth-weight and preterm infants are at risk for poor developmental outcomes.

John Watson

urged psychologists to abandon the study of consciousness, claiming that it could not be studied scientifically

animals researchers

use lesion a precise destruction brain tissue in order to correlate any loss of behavioral and sensory functions that the loss of tissue and a given region of the brain or they stimulated a specific region with minute amounts electrical current or chemicals.

Emerging adults

use skills they acquired earlier in life to accomplish developmental tasks in the academic, conduct, and friendship domains. New skills are required for tasks in the work and romantic domains.

seven primary mental abilities

verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, and reasoning. Thurstone identified seven primary mental abilities

Today's psychologists

view consciousness as a neurobiological phenomenon rather than an exclusively psychological one

social-cognitive theory

view that personality is a collection of learned behaviors that have been acquired through interactions with others.

biological perspective

views abnormal behavior as arising from a physical cause, such as genetic inheritance, biochemical abnormalities or imbalances, structural abnormalities within the brain, and/or infection. Thus, its adherents favor biological treatments, such as drug therapy. Causes: A psychological disorder is a symptom of an underlaying physical disorder caused by a structural or biochemical abnormality in the brain, by genetic inheritance, or by infection Treatment: Diagnose and treat like any other physical disorder Drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, or psychosurgery

interference

when information stored either before or after a given memory can hinder the ability to remember it the combination of two or more waves that results in a single wave

control/influence

when researchers know hot to apply a principle or change a condition to prevent unwanted occurrences or to bring about desired outcomes

Between 18 and 20 months of age

when their vocabulary is about 50 words, children begin to put nouns, verbs, and adjectives together in two-word phrases and sentences. At this stage, children depend to a great extent on gesture, tone, and context to convey their meaning

neuropeptide

when we are exposed to stressors, our bodies pump out large amounts of this substance A relatively short chain of amino acids that serves as a neurotransmitter. a peptide that acts as a neurotransmitter, a neuromodulator, or a neurohormone a peptide hormone produced by a neuron

Punishment​

whereas one that decreases an operant's frequency is called a punisher the opposite of reinforcement can involve either positive (added) or negative (removed) consequences

imaging

which can measure the brain structure or its functioning. provides researchers psychiatrists and surgeons, the actual pictures the brains inner workings.

brainstem

which connects the brain to the nerves in the spinal cord. It's the Center for Basic Life Support breathing the beating of the heart. Waking and sleeping.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

which consists of a series of pictures of ambiguous situations The person taking the test is asked to create a story about each picture—to describe what is going on in the picture, what the person or persons pictured are thinking about, what they may be feeling, and what is likely to be the outcome of the situation.

visual cliff

which is "a board laid across a sheet of heavy glass, with a patterned material directly beneath the glass on one side and several feet below it on the other" (p. 65). This arrangement made it appear that there was a sudden drop-off, or "visual cliff," on one side Most babies aged 6 to 14 months could be coaxed by their mothers to crawl to the shallow side, but only three would crawl onto the deep side. Gibson and Walk concluded that most babies "can discriminate depth as soon as they can crawl"

Mednick and Mednick (1967)

who reasoned that the essence of creativity consists of the creative thinker's ability to fit together ideas that to the noncreative thinker might appear remote or unrelated, created the Remote Associates Test (RAT). Items on the RAT ask test-takers to propose a single-word link for three seemingly unrelated objects or ideas. For example, what word would you propose as a link for the words gold, tender, and attorney? The best answer might be bar. What about office, fence, and modern. A plausible answer is post.

Stereotypes

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

Analogy

working backward, and means-end analysis are problem-solving heuristics that may or may not lead to a correct solution. Analogy heuristics apply proven solutions to new problems

Reliable tests

yield consistent results

successive approximations

A series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response

During the sensorimotor stage

(ages birth to 2 years), infants act on the world through their senses and motor activities and develop object permanence.

Active euthanasia

(also called "assisted suicide") occurs when a physician or other individual (at a patient's request) hastens a patient's death by active means, such as by administering a fatal dose of a drug.

Do you think video games contribute to aggressive behavior?

The hypothesis​ Evidence Beneficial Video Games:

representative sample

-a sample of participants selected from the larger population are included. A representative sample requires a selection of the population varies based on the culture, geography or location, and socioeconomic background

hypothesis

- a prediction about a cause-effect relationship between two or more conditions or variables

There are about as many cells in the brain

- as there are stars in our galaxy about 10 trillion - more than 200 types -these cells called neurons and we're all designed to do just three things receive information from other cells, process it then transmitted to the rest of the body -All the behavior begins with the actions of the neuron. -First gathers incoming information at one and reset this spread around its branch fibers what the invites

validity

-a test ability to measure what is intended to measure

Psychologists Study

-mental process, simply become simply because they are fascinating and challenging -others work to improve education, reduce stress, promote peace, counteract violence, they were the dedicated people watching us observe behavior and especially arranged conditions measuring it and testing.

passive smoking

-unintentional inhalation of tobacco smoke -exposure can put one at risk for numerous diseases including: cancer, heart disease, and lung infections -low-birth weight, prematurity, stillbirths, and SIDS have been associated with maternal smoking -smoking in presence of children is associated with development of bronchitis, pneumonia, middle ear infections, and an increase in frequency/severity of asthma attacks the inhalation of environmental tobacco smoke by nonsmokers the involuntary inhalation of smoke from other people's cigarettes, cigars, or pipes breathing smoke-filled air—with proven ill effects

Theory

-used by the scientific method -a general principle or set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related. "It is theory that enables researches to fit many separate facts into a larger framework and thus impose order on what would otherwise be a disconnected jumble of data"

Biological perspective

-views abnormal behavior as a symptom of an underlying physical disorder. They hold the view as that psychological disorders have physical cause such as genetic, inheritance, biochemical abnormalities or imbalances, structural abnormalities within the brain or imperfections. -therapists or doctors favoring the biological perspective prefer to use drugs, electroconvulsive therapy (shock treatment) or psychosurgery

Humanistic Perspective

-views human nature as inherently good and rational and as naturally moving toward self-actualization. (The fulfillment of each person's full potential). According to this view psychological disorders result when a person's natural tendency toward self-actualization is blocked. Remove the block and the individual can once again move toward self-actualization -the concept that people are amazing

double-blind technique

-when neither the participant nor the researcher knows which participants are receiving the treatment (experimental group) and which are in the control group

Placebo Effect

-when persons response to a treatment variable in an experiment is due to expectations regarding treatment rather then the treatment itself

description

-when researchers describe the behavior or mental process of interest as accurately and completely as possible -the foundation for everything at is done in the field of psychology -"what happened"

chlamydia

A bacterial infection that affects the reproductive organs of both males and females A sexually transmitted disease, the most common in developed countries, caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. Often producing no symptoms, it can cause infertility, chronic pain, or a tubal pregnancy if left untreated. one of many bacterial STDs, diseases that can be cured by antibiotics. It can be transmitted through many kinds of physical contact involving the genitals as well as actual intercourse (CDC, 2012c). Women are about three times as likely as men to suffer from chlamyd

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A biological therapy in which an electric current is passed through the right hemisphere of the brain; usually reserved for patients with severe depression who are suicidal

interpersonal therapy (IPT)

A brief psychotherapy designed to help people with depression better understand and cope with problems relating to their interpersonal relationships

Opiates

A category of psychoactive drugs that are chemically similar to morphine and have strong pain-relieving properties.

interference

A cause of forgetting that occurs because information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder the ability to remember it

encoding failure

A cause of forgetting that occurs when information was never put into long-term memory

encoding failure

A cause of forgetting that occurs when information was never put into long-term memory.

Intrinsic motivation

A child reads several books each week because reading is fun.

socioeconomic status

A collective term for the economic, occupational, and educational factors that influence an individual's relative position in society

Reinforcers​

A consequence that increases the frequency of an operant is known as a reinforcer

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

A devastating and incurable illness that is caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and progressively weakens the body's immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to opportunistic infections that usually cause death

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

A devastating and incurable illness that is caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and progressively weakens the body's immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to opportunistic infections that usually cause death caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The virus attacks the immune system until it is essentially nonfunctional. Although the first case was diagnosed in this country in 1981, there is still no cure for AIDS.

autism

A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a child's educational performance.

problem-focused coping

A direct response aimed at reducing, modifying, or eliminating a source of stress

personality disorder

A long-standing, inflexible, maladaptive pattern of behaving and relating to others, which usually begins in early childhood or adolescence

specific phobia

A marked fear of a specific object or situation; a general label for any phobia other than agoraphobia and social phobia

defense mechanism

A means used by the ego to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem

concept

A mental category used to represent a class or group of objects, people, organizations, events, situations, or relations that share common characteristics or attributes

psychologist

A mental health professional who possesses a doctoral degree in psychology

drive

A need gives rise to an internal state of tension called a drive, and the person or organism is motivated to reduce it.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A prolonged and severe stress reaction to a catastrophic event or to severe, chronic stress

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A prolonged and severe stress reaction to a catastrophic event or to severe, chronic stress.

Recognition heuristic

A rapid decision based on recognition of one of the alternatives.

hospice care

A rapidly growing alternative to hospitals and nursing homes is hospice care. Hospices are agencies that care for the needs of the dying more humanely and affordably than hospitals can and that use special facilities or, in some cases, the patient's own home. A hospice follows a set of guidelines that make it more attuned to the patient's personal needs and preferences than a hospital or nursing home typically can be.

learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation

attitude

A relatively stable evaluation of a person, object, situation, or issue, along a continuum ranging from positive to negative

emotion-focused coping

A response involving reappraisal of a stressor to reduce its emotional impact

Gestalt therapy

A therapy that was originated by Fritz Perls and that emphasizes the importance of clients' fully experiencing, in the present moment, their feelings, thoughts, and actions and then taking responsibility for them

behavior therapy

A treatment approach that is based on the idea that abnormal behavior is learned and that applies the principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and/or observational learning to eliminate inappropriate or maladaptive behaviors and replace them with more adaptive responses

11.2: Humanistic Theories

According to Maslow, the goal of personality development is to reach a level where most behavior is motivated by self-actualization, the drive to attain one's fullest potential. According to Rogers, individuals often do not become fully functioning persons because in childhood they did not receive unconditional positive regard from their parents. To gain positive regard, they had to meet their parents' conditions of worth. The sense of self-esteem is influenced by comparisons of one's real self to one's desired self. Most people's self-esteem is based on what they perceive to be their strengths and weaknesses rather than on a single desired accomplishment or trait. By age 7, most children have a global sense of self-esteem and continue developing beliefs about their competencies in specific domains (e.g., sports) for several years.

Stephen Kosslyn

According to psychologist Stephen Kosslyn and his colleagues (Kosslyn, Thompson, & Ganis, 2009), we mentally construct our images of objects one part at a time. Stored memories of how the parts of an object look are retrieved and assembled in working memory to form a complete image. Such images can correspond directly to the real world, or they can be creative

Lazarus theory

According to the Lazarus theory, a cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional response; all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on the cognitive appraisal.

Biological View

According to the biological view, genes and prenatal sex hormones have an important influence on gender role development. In a review of studies on the effects of prenatal androgens (male sex hormones), Collaer and Hines (1995) found that these hormones have a reasonably strong influence on children's play behavior. Girls exposed to prenatal androgens, usually as a result of sharing the womb with a male twin, are more likely than girls not exposed to these hormones to prefer to play with toys favored by boys, such as trucks, cars, and fire engines (Berenbaum & Snyder, 1995). Prenatal androgens are also known to affect brain development and functioning in humans and many other animal species (Beyenburg et al., 2000).

Accountability

Accountability overload occurs when people have responsibility for the physical or psychological well-being of others but only a limited degree of control (air-traffic controllers, emergency room nurses and doctors); accountability underload occurs when workers perceive their jobs as meaningless.

peak experiences

experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony within and with the universe.

Follow Up

After the interview, it's a good idea to send a thank-you note. If you met with more than one interviewer, send a note to each of them, mentioning some specific aspect of the discussion that you found interesting. This will indicate that you were fully engaged in the conversation, listening intently, and interested in the interviewer's knowledge about the open position and the organization. The note should also express your appreciation for the interviewer's time and your interest in the position.

antigens

All cells foreign to the body, such as bacteria, viruses, and so on

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

An anxiety disorder in which a person has recurrent obsessions and/or compulsions

insight therapies

Approaches to psychotherapy based on the notion that psychological well-being depends on self-understanding

Openness

Are you eager to try new things and consider new ideas? If so, then you might get a high score on a test that measures openness. This dimension contrasts individuals who seek out varied experiences and who are imaginative, intellectually curious, and broad minded with those whose interests are narrower. Openness may also be an important factor in adapting to new situations. In one 4-year study, researchers found that college students who scored high on this factor as freshmen adjusted to college life more easily than peers who scored lower (Harms, Roberts, & Winter, 2006). Apparently, students who were higher in openness were better able to adapt their own personality characteristics to the demands of the college environment than their low-scoring peers.

Unemployment

As the unemployment rate rises, so do the number of Interest searches with key terms such as "stress" and "distress" (Ayers et al., 2012). This is probably because unemployment, or the fear of unemployment, is another aspect of socioeconomic status that is related to stress and health. People who are forced out of their jobs experience heightened risks of stress-related illnesses in the months that follow (Isaksson, Nohansson, Bellaagh, & Sjöberg, 2004). These effects are found among people of low, middle, and high socioeconomic status, by the way. This consistency is the result of the financial strain that accompanies the loss of income and the uncertainty about the future that is part of the experience of looking for a new job. These aspects of unemployment are stressful no matter how much money people made in their former jobs. However, unemployment is also stressful because it diminishes people's sense of control over what happens to them.

Chart Your Progress

As you work toward gaining more control over the target behavior, diagram your progress using graphs, tables, or other means that will help you track your target behavior.

Preconventional Level

At Kohlberg's first level of moral development, the preconventional level, moral reasoning is governed by the physical consequences of behavior rather than one's own internalized standards of right and wrong. An act is judged good or bad based on its physical consequences. In Stage 1, "right" is whatever avoids punishment; in Stage 2, "right" is whatever is rewarded, benefits the individual, or results in a favor being returned. "You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours" is the type of thinking common at this stage. Children usually function at the preconventional level through age 10. the stage in which behavior that avoids punishment is right. children obey out of fear of punishment the stage of self interest. what is right is what benefits the individual or gains a favor in return. "You scratch my back I scratch yours"

babbling

At about 4 to 6 months, infants begin babbling. They utter phonemes

At the formal operations stage

At the formal operations stage (ages 11 or 12 years and beyond), adolescents can apply logic to abstract problems and hypothetical situations.

Formal operational (11 or 12 years and beyond)

At this stage, adolescents learn to think logically in abstract situations, learn to test hypotheses systematically, and become interested in the world of ideas. Not all people attain full formal operational thinking.

reciprocal determinism

Bandura's concept of a mutual influential relationship among behavior, cognitive factors, and environment

Goal orientation theory

Behavior depends on which of four goal orientations a person adopts. A student adopting the performance/approach orientation feeling satisfied with getting a C on an exam when he learns that all of the other students received Ds and Fs

Need for achievement (n Ach)

Behavior results from the need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high level of excellence. A medical school graduate choosing a specialty that requires a 6-year residency because he wants to challenge himself to attain the highest, most difficult goal possible

Arousal theory

Behavior results from the need to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Climbing a mountain for excitement; listening to classical music for relaxation

Drive-reduction theory

Behavior results from the need to reduce an internal state of tension or arousal. Eating to reduce hunger

Illumination

Being suddenly struck by the right solution

Perceived control

Belief that one has some degree of control over stressors

Preoperational

Children are able to represent objects and events mentally with words and images. They can engage in imaginary play (pretend), using one object to represent another. Their thinking is egocentric; that is, they fail to consider the perspective of others. (2 to 7 years)

Concrete operational (7 to 11 or 12 years)

Children at this stage become able to think logically in concrete situations. They acquire the concepts of conservation and reversibility, can order objects in a series, and can classify them according to multiple dimensions.

The Preoperational Stage

Children move into the preoperational stage of cognitive development when they begin to exhibit signs of the symbolic function—the understanding that one thing can stand for another. Children act on the world in ways that help them develop symbolic schemes throughout this stage, which is typical of children between the ages of 2 and 7 years. Two ways in which children display the symbolic function are through the use of words to represent objects and through pretend play, such as imagining that a block is a car or a doll is a real baby. As children practice using symbols, they become increasingly able to represent objects and events mentally with words and images. During the preoperational stage, children exhibit egocentrism: They believe that everyone sees what they see, thinks as they think, and feels as they feel. As a result, their thinking is often illogical. In addition, their thinking about objects is dominated by appearances. For example, a 3-year-old may believe that a cookie is ruined when it breaks.

12.6: Childhood Disorders

Children with DMDD are irritable and exhibit episodes of destructive rage. They resist adults' efforts to calm them down and are behind their peers in the development of emotion-management strategies. The disorder is related to difficult temperament in infancy. Behavior modification can reduce symptoms. ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that interferes with the development of communication skills and causes children to be unable to engage in normal social relationships. Low-functioning children with ASD do not have normal language and usually have intellectual disabilities. High-functioning children have normal or high levels of intelligence and language but lack social communication skills. ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that includes restlessness and attentional problems. It is most likely to be diagnosed when children enter school. The effectiveness of medications for ADHD together with the ineffectiveness of behavioral interventions suggests that this disorder has a physiological basis.

schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. frameworks of knowledge, and assumptions that we have about people, objects, and events

Intuition

Decisions are motivated by "gut feelings" that may be influenced by perceptions of gains.

social responsibility norms

Defined: An expectation to help those who are dependent on us, even if the cost outweighs the benefit

learning perspective

Developmentalists who adopt the learning perspective have long maintained that language is acquired in the same way as other behaviors—as a result of learning through reinforcement and imitation.

Discriminative

Discriminative stimulus: A stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished​

Be Punctual

Do you feel frustrated when others keep you waiting? Interviewers respond emotionally to tardiness, just as you do. Consequently, it's best to arrive early. And if you are unavoidably delayed, call and reschedule.

Performance/Approach

Doing just enough work to ensure that one's performance will be superior to that of others (e.g., working for an A in a difficult class to feel superior to others in a class or being satisfied with a D because most other students are failing)

sexual response cycle

Dr. William Masters and Dr. Virginia Johnson conducted the first laboratory investigations of the human sexual response in 1954. They monitored their volunteer participants, who engaged in sex while connected to electronic sensing devices. Masters and Johnson (1966) concluded that both males and females experience a sexual response cycle with four phases.

lucid dreams

Dreams in which people can think clearly about the circumstances of waking life and the fact that they are dreaming, yet they remain asleep in the midst of a vivid dream.

antidepressant drugs

Drugs that act as mood elevators for people with severe depression and are also prescribed to treat some anxiety disorders

psychosocial stage

Erikson's eight developmental stages for the entire life span; each is defined by a conflict that must be resolved satisfactorily for healthy personality development to occur

Prepare and Effective Resume

Even if the job you're applying for doesn't require a resume, it's a good idea to prepare one and take it—along with some extra copies—with you to the interview. A good resume is a quick source of information for the interviewer, who needs to know about your entire work history to create questions based on it. Most colleges and universities have career centers that provide advice on résumé preparation and related services.

Consciousness

Everything of which we are aware at any given time; our thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions of the external environment

Sociocognitive

Expectations and a desire to be a "good subject" motivate people to respond to the suggestions of a hypnotist.

Elimination by aspects

Factors on which alternatives that are to be evaluated are ordered from most to least important; any alternatives that do not satisfy the most important factor are eliminated; elimination of alternatives then continues factor by factor until one choice remains.

Flooding

Flooding involves exposing clients to a feared object or event (or asking them to imagine it vividly) for an extended period, until their anxiety decreases. The person is exposed to the fear all at once, not gradually as in systematic desensitization. An individual with a fear of heights, for example, might have to go onto the roof of a tall building and remain there until the fear subsided. For flooding to be effective, the fear-inducing stimulus must be sufficiently intense to bring about a physiologically based fear response (Siegmund et al., 2011). Thus, a person who fears flying would benefit more from taking an actual plane trip than from just thinking about one.

flipped classroom

For example, a new teaching methodology, the flipped classroom, combines in-person and online instruction

NREM (non-REM) sleep

Four sleep stages characterized by slow, regular respiration and heart rate, little body movement, and blood pressure and brain activity that are at their 24-hour low points

unconscious

Freud believed to be the primary motivating force of human behavior. according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

reciprocal liking

Further, we tend to like the people who also like us—or who we believe like us

language acquisition device (LAD)

He argues that the brain contains a language acquisition device (LAD), which enables children to acquire language and discover the rules of grammar easily and naturally, an approach known as the nativist perspective

Masculinity/femininity (Mf)

High scorers show "traditional" masculine or feminine attitudes and values.

Schizophrenia (Sc)

High scorers tend to be socially withdrawn and to engage in bizarre and unusual thinking.

theory of multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's proposal that there are several independent forms of intelligence

exhaustion stage

If the organism finally fails in its efforts to resist, it reaches the exhaustion stage, at which point all the stores of deep energy are depleted, and disintegration and death follow.

Ego Integrity versus Despair

In later years, adults experience ego integrity versus despair. The goal of this stage is an acceptance of one's life in preparation for facing death. Lack of self-acceptance leads to despair and hopelessness. Individuals review their lives, and if they are satisfied and feel a sense of accomplishment, they will experience ego integrity. If dissatisfied, they may sink into despair.

Amos Tversky (1972)

In one of the most important early studies of decision making along these lines, psychologist Amos Tversky (1972) suggested that we deal with the limitations on decision making by using a strategy he called elimination by aspects

emerging adulthood

In search of an answer to this question, developmental psychologist Jeffrey Arnett has proposed that the educational, social, and economic demands of modern culture have given rise to a new developmental period he calls emerging adulthood, the period from the late teens to the early 20s when individuals experiment with options prior to taking on adult roles

Avoidant Attachment

Infants with a pattern called avoidant attachment (approximately 20% of American infants) are usually not responsive to their mother when she is present and not troubled when she leaves. When the parent returns, the infant may actively avoid contact with her or, at least, not be quick to greet her. In short, these infants do not act much more attached to the parent than to a stranger.

shiritori

Japanese parents foster phonological awareness in their children by playing a game with them called shiritori, in which one person says a word and another must supply a word that begins with its ending sound Activities in which parents and children work together to read or write a story also foster the development of phonological awareness

Physical challenge

Jobs range from being physically demanding (construction work, professional sports) to requiring little to no physical activity. Some jobs (firefighting, police work) involve physical risk.

Mental challenge

Jobs that tax people beyond their mental capability, as well as those that require too little mental challenge, can be frustrating.

Prevarication

Language can express ideas that are untrue.

Specialization

Language sounds are used only for communication.

Educate Yourself

Learn as much as you can about the business or industry you want to work in and about the particular firm to which you are applying. Study the qualifications for the job you are seeking, both required and preferred, if they're available, and get a good idea of how your qualifications match up.

observational learning (social-cognitive learning)

Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation

latent learning

Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so

Incubation

Letting the problem "sit" while the relevant information is digested, often below the level of awareness

Performance/Avoidance

Limiting efforts to avoid surpassing the performance of others (e.g., getting mediocre grades to fit in with a peer group)

Schedules of Reinforcement​

List the four types of schedules of reinforcement​

Motivated forgetting

Loss of information that is emotionally unpleasant

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Lower needs must be met before higher needs motivate behavior. School children not being able to focus on achievement if they are hungry or don't feel safe

approach-approach conflicts

Making choices is stressful as well. Some decisions cause us stress by forcing us to choose between equally desirable alternatives

Is the behavior unusual among people who are the same age as the person?

Many behaviors that are considered normal at one age are not considered so in other periods of life. A 2-year-old who physically throws himself onto the floor in the midst of a tantrum would not be considered abnormal, whereas an adult who does so would be thought of as behaving abnormally. Similarly, a 10-year-old who has temper tantrums that are similar to those of a 2-year-old might be considered abnormal as well.

trimesters

Many people divide the 9 months of pregnancy into trimesters, three periods of 3 months' duration. However, the division of pregnancy into trimesters is arbitrary and has nothing to do with prenatal development

parental investment

Many use the term parental investment to denote the amount of time and effort men or women must devote to parenthood. According to parental investment theory, women and men have adopted mating strategies that correspond to their respective investments in parenting

Humanistic theories

Maslow's and Rogers's Theories -Maslow emphasized self-actualization; Rogers believed that unconditional positive regard helped individuals attain potential Self Esteem -Humanistic theory that promotes research on self-esteem, which is somewhat stable across the life span; there is global and domain-focused self-esteem

What are the different types of learning from models?

Modeling​ Facilitation​ Inhibition​ Disinhibition​

expert systems

One of the first expert systems was MYCIN, a program used by physicians to diagnose blood diseases and meningitis. Such systems, combined with the information-disseminating power of the Internet, enable researchers on the cutting edge of medical innovation to rapidly make new diagnosis and treatment strategies available to health professionals even in the remotest parts of the world (Bennani, Diouny, & Boumalif, 2012). It's important to note here that expert systems do not make decisions for practitioners. Instead, they serve as "assistants" to humans Remember, too, that any expert system relies on the accumulated knowledge of human experts. Thus, it is impossible for computers to totally replace human professionals.

work motivation

One of the social motives is work motivation, the conditions and processes responsible for the arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort of workers on the job.

Generalization

Pavlov found that a tone similar to the original conditioned stimulus would produce the conditioned response (salivation), a phenomenon called In classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

Extinction

Pavlov found that without the food, salivation to the tone became weaker and weaker and then finally disappeared altogether in classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as as result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

Describe the methods and findings of Pavlov's studies of classical conditioning​

Pavlov, a physician by training and profession, was engaged in research aimed at clarifying the role of saliva in the process of digestion. In pursuit of this goal, he developed a procedure for collecting and measuring the amount of saliva in a dog's mouth Pavlov (1927/1960) used tones, bells, buzzers, lights, geometric shapes, electric shocks, and metronomes in his conditioning experiments

Gestalt Therapy

Perceived Cause of Disorder: difficulties are caused by blaming society, past experiences, parents, or others Goals of Therapy: help clients achieve a more integrated self and become more self-accepting Methods Used: directive therapy; the "empty chair" technique; role-play Primary Disorders or Symptoms Treated: depression

Humanistic therapies

Psychotherapies that assume that people have the ability and freedom to lead rational lives and make rational choices

Holland's Personality Types and Work Preferences

Realistic -Aggressive, masculine, physically strong, often with low verbal or interpersonal skills -Mechanical activities and tool use; often chooses a job such as mechanic, electrician, or surveyor Investigative -Oriented toward thinking (particularly abstract thinking), organizing, and planning; low in social skills -Ambiguous, challenging tasks; often a scientist or engineer Artistic -Asocial -Unstructured, highly individual activity; often an artist Social -Extraverted; people-oriented, sociable, and needing attention; avoids intellectual activity and dislikes highly ordered activity -Working with people in service jobs like nursing and education Enterprising -Highly verbal and dominating; enjoys organizing and directing others; persuasive and a strong leader -Often chooses a career in sales Conventional -Prefers structured activities and subordinate roles; likes clear guidelines; accurate and precise -May choose an occupation such as bookkeeping or filing

Denial

Refusing to acknowledge consciously the existence of danger or a threatening situation

intellectual disabilities

Significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, including the social and practical skills of daily living.

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory that there are three types of intelligence: componential (analytical), experiential (creative), and contextual (practical)

leptin

Researchers Friedman and colleagues identified the hormone leptin, which affects the hypothalamus and may be an element in the regulation of body weight (Smucny et al., 2012). Leptin is produced by the body's fat tissues. Decreases in body fat cause lower levels of leptin in the body. Lower levels of leptin stimulate food intake because the body "thinks" that it may be in danger of starvation. When leptin levels increase sufficiently people begin to lose weight due to the appetite-suppressing effects of rising levels of leptin. In one study, obese mice injected with leptin lost 30% of their body weight within 2 weeks (Halaas et al., 1995). However, the bodies of humans who are obese appear to develop a tolerance for the effects of leptin. Consequently, researchers are currently searching for a way to counteract this tolerance in hopes of developing a leptin-based anti-obesity drug

locus of control

Rotter's concept of a cognitive factor that explains how people account for what happens in their lives - either seeing themselves as primarily in control of their behavior and its consequences (internal locus of control) or perceiving what happens to them to be in the hands of fate, luck, or chance (external locus of control).

locus of control

Rotter's concept of a cognitive factor that explains how people account for what happens in their lives—either seeing themselves as primarily in control of their behavior and its consequences (internal locus of control) or perceiving what happens to them to be in the hands of fate, luck, or chance (external locus of control)

g factor

SPEARMAN'S term for a general intellectual ability that underlies all mental operations to some degree

primary drives

States of tension or arousal that arise from a biological need and are unlearned

Set Goals

Setting goals helps to either decrease or increase the target behavior.

paraphilic disorders

Sexual disorders in which recurrent sexual urges, fantasies, or behavior involve nonhuman objects, children, other nonconsenting persons, or the suffering or humiliation of the individual or his or her partner

fetal alcohol effects

Some children prenatally exposed to alcohol have fetal alcohol effects—they show some of the characteristics of fetal alcohol syndrome but in less-severe form (Vaux, 2012). Thus, public health officials recommend that women abstain from drinking alcohol altogether during pregnancy

Lifestyle and Health

Smoking is considered the most dangerous health-related behavior because it is directly related to over 400,000 deaths each year, including deaths from heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases. Alcohol abuse damages virtually every organ in the body, including the liver, heart, and brain. Alcoholics are three times as likely to die in motor vehicle accidents as nonalcoholics. The major sexually transmitted diseases caused by bacteria are chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. All can be cured with antibiotics. However, chlamydia and gonorrhea pose a particular threat to women because, unlike men, women with these infections typically have no symptoms or very mild symptoms, making prompt diagnosis and treatment less likely. If the infection spreads, it may result in infertility. Viral STDs include the human papilloma virus (HPV), genital herpes, and HIV/AIDS. Viral infections presently are not curable, but a vaccine is available to protect women against some strains of HPV. HIV gradually renders the immune system nonfunctional. Psychotherapy, self-help groups, and antidepressant medication can be helpful to those coping with HIV/AIDS. Obesity is related to many chronic health conditions. Nutrient deficiencies also cause problems. Fast-food consumers are at risk for both obesity and dietary deficiencies. Guidelines based on the latest research are available to help people improve the quality of their diets. Regular aerobic exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, increases muscular strength, makes bones denser and stronger, and helps one maintain a desirable weight. Alternative medicine, or the use of any treatment that has not been proven scientifically to be effective, may be helpful in both preventing and treating illness in some instances. However, many patients increase their risk of poor outcomes by not telling their physicians about their use of alternative treatments. And some people delay seeking necessary conventional medical treatment because they believe that alternative approaches will work.

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

g factor

Spearman's term for a general intellectual ability that underlies all mental operations to some degree

Rationalization

Supplying a logical, rational, or socially acceptable reason rather than the real reason for an action or event

automaticity

The ability of the heart to generate and conduct electrical impulses on its own. The combined effects of memory strategies and repeated retrieval can lead to the development of automaticity for some information

emotional intelligence

The ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday life

hypothetico-deductive thinking

The ability to base logical reasoning on a hypothetical premise

confirmation bias

The cognitive process that underlies both functional fixedness and mental set is confirmation bias, the tendency to selectively pay attention to information that confirms preexisting beliefs and ignore data that contradict them

short-term memory (STM)

The component of the memory system that holds about seven (from five to nine) items for less than 30 seconds without rehearsal; also called working memory

conservation

The concept that a given quantity of matter remains the same despite being rearranged or changed in appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away

anxiety

The condition of feeling uneasy or worried about what may happen Anxiety disorders are the most common category of mental disorders affecting about 18% of adults in the United States

excitement phase

The excitement phase is the beginning of the sexual response. Visual cues, such as watching a partner undress, are more likely to initiate the excitement phase in men than in women. Tender, loving touches coupled with verbal expressions of love arouse women more readily than visual stimulation. And men can become aroused almost instantly, while arousal for women is often a more gradual, building process. For both partners, muscular tension increases, heart rate quickens, and blood pressure rises

serial position effect

The finding that, for information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence

serial position effect

The finding that, for information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence.

Aplysia

The first close look at how memory works in single neurons was provided by Eric Kandel and his colleagues, who traced the effects of learning and memory in the sea snail Aplysia The studies of learning and memory in Aplysia reflect only simple classical conditioning, which is a type of nondeclarative memory

menopause

The major biological event for women during middle age is menopause—the cessation of menstruation, which usually occurs between ages 45 and 55 and signifies the end of reproductive capacity

working memory

The memory subsystem that we use when we try to understand information, remember it, or use it to solve a problem or communicate with someone

homeostasis

The natural tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state to ensure physical survival

Generativity versus Stagnation

The next major theme of adult life, generativity versus stagnation, is at its peak during the years of middle age. Generativity, according to Erikson, is the desire to guide the next generation, through parenting, teaching, or mentoring. If a middle-aged person does not engage with the next generation, she becomes stagnant. Middle-aged people must find some way of contributing to the development of the next generation. Failing this, they may become self-absorbed and emotionally impoverished and reach a point of stagnation.

linguistic relativity hypothesis

The notion that the language a person speaks largely determines the nature of that person's thoughts

decay theory

The oldest theory of forgetting, which holds that memories, if not used, fade with time and ultimately disappear altogether

cortex

The outer layer of the cerebral the familiar convoluted surface of the brain, the center of conscious thought perception and integration of all sensation and responses

emerging adulthood

The period from the late teens to early 20s when individuals explore options prior to committing to adult roles

symbolic function

The understanding that one thing—an object, a word, a drawing—can stand for another

cognitive behavior therapies (CBTs)

Therapies that assume maladaptive behavior can result from irrational thoughts, beliefs, and ideas

Relationship therapies

Therapies that attempt to improve clients' interpersonal relationships or create new relationships to support client's effort address psychological problems

Impression Management

Think of the interview as an opportunity to make a particular impression on a potential employer. However, you should refrain from exaggerating your qualifications or experience. Surveys suggest that 90% of job candidates do so (Levashina & Campion, 2007). Thus, most experienced interviewers are skilled at recognizing such exaggerations and tend to look unfavorably on interviewees who use them (Paulhus, Harms, Bruce, & Lysy, 2003).

mastery/avoidance

Those who have a mastery/avoidance orientation will exhibit whatever behaviors are necessary to avoid failing to learn (a different outcome than a failing grade, by the way).

transsexuals

Those who live as the opposite gender on a full-time basis are known as transsexuals. Some transsexuals are so anguished by the conflict between the sex to which they were assigned at birth and their gender identity that they undergo sex reassignment

Deficits in interpersonal skills

Through role-playing and analysis of the client's communication style, the therapist tries to help the client develop the interpersonal skills necessary to initiate and sustain relationships.

interactionist

Thus, most researchers endorse an interactionist approach to explaining language development that acknowledges the crucial role of infants' apparently inborn capacity for acquiring language but also recognizes that environmental influences contribute to language development as well

Dress Professionally

When you are interviewing for a job, your clothing, visible adornments on your body (e.g., tattoos, jewelry), how well-groomed you are, and even the way you smell can be forms of communication. Your appearance should communicate to the interviewer that you understand the environment in which you hope to be working. Keep in mind, too, that your appearance influences your own self-confidence. Researchers have found that the more formal interviewees' clothing is, the more positive are the remarks they make about themselves during the interview (Hannover & Kuehnen, 2002). Furthermore, studies suggest that professional attire more strongly influences an interviewer's perception of a job candidate than any other variable (Ruetzler, Taylor, Reynolds, Baker, & Killen, 2012).

relearning method

With the relearning method, retention is expressed as the percentage of time saved when material is relearned relative to the time required to learn the material originally a method for measuring retention that compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the material

elimination by aspects

With this approach, the factors on which the alternatives are to be evaluated are ordered from most important to least important. Any alternative that does not satisfy the most important factor is automatically eliminated. The process of elimination continues as each factor is considered in order. The alternative that survives is the one chosen.

circadian rhythms

Within each 24 hour period, the regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions and behaviors the circadian timing system is involved in the 24-hour variation of virtually every physiological and psychological variable that researchers have studied

fetal alcohol syndrome

Women who drink heavily during pregnancy risk having babies with fetal alcohol syndrome. Babies with this syndrome have mental retardation and abnormally small heads with wide-set eyes and a short nose. They also have behavioral problems such as hyperactivity

Mastery/Approach

Working to attain something of self-determined intrinsic value (e.g., knowledge)

Mastery/Avoidance

Working to avoid an outcome that threatens self-worth (e.g., being unable to learn something new)

empty nest syndrome

You may have heard that parents experience an empty nest syndrome when their grown children leave home. Contrary to this popular stereotype, parents often appreciate the opportunity to reexamine their identity that is afforded by their children's departure from home (Noriko, 2004). Moreover, analyses show that the presence of an empty nest has little or no relationship to the appearance of mental disorders such as depression at midlife (Schmidt et al., 2004). Thus, the concept of an empty nest syndrome seems to have little basis in reality.

conception

You might be surprised to learn that it is during the first 8 weeks after the first of life's developmental milestones, conception, the joining of a sperm and an egg.

Greet the Interviewer Appropriately

Your greeting plays an important role in the interview process as well. In the United States, it's best to look your interviewer directly in the eyes, shake hands firmly, pronounce her or his name correctly, and have good posture.

dissociative disorder

a disorder in which, under unbearable stress, consciousness becomes dissociated from a person's identity or her or his memories of important personal events, or both

jet lag

a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones produces memory deficits that may be permanent airline workers are just as likely to suffer from jet lag as passengers on their first intercontinental flight

delusions

a false belief, not generally shared by others in the culture

behavioral genetics

a field of research that uses twin studies and adoption studies to investigate the relative effects of heredity and environment on behavior

repression

a form of motivated forgetting, can cause traumatic memories to be so deeply buried in an individual's unconscious mind that he or she has lost all awareness of them

Physical changes associated with later adulthood include

a general slowing of behavior; a decline in sensory capacity and in heart, lung, kidney, and muscle function; and an increase in chronic conditions such as arthritis, heart problems, and high blood pressure. Although older adults perform cognitive tasks more slowly, if they keep mentally and physically active, they can usually maintain their mental skills as long as their health holds out.

neurotransmitter system

a group of neurons that communicates by using the same neurotransmitter

Meditation

a group of techniques that involves focusing attention on an object, a word, one's breathing, or one's body movements in an effort to block out all distractions, to enhance well-being, and to achieve an altered state of consciousness

Reinforcement

a key concept in operant conditioning and may be defined as an increase in behavior that occurs as a result of a consequence any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated

behavior therapy

a treatment approach that is based on the idea that abnormal behavior is learned and that applies the principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and/or observational learning to eliminate inappropriate or maladaptive behaviors and replace them with more adaptive responses

highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART)

a treatment for AIDS that has been shown to significantly increase life expectancy

deep brain stimulation

a treatment in which a device implanted in the brain delivers electrical impulses to the parts of the brain that are critical to memory, have yielded encouraging results electrical stimulation applied through surgically implanted electrodes; used to treat some anxiety and mood disorders procedure to treat depression in which electrodes are surgically implanted in specific areas of the brain and connected to a pulse generator that is placed under the skin and stimulates these brain areas

Scaffolding

a type of instruction in which an adult adjusts the amount of guidance provided to match a child's present level of ability

How do we define classical conditioning?

a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another This kind of learning is sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning

digital amnesia

a type of memory loss associated with overreliance on technology The phenomenon of digital amnesia illustrates a key principle of memory function—use it or lose it---is, if you want to maintain a memory, you have to actively process it.

pleasure principle

according to this principle, the id tries to seek pleasure, avoid pain, and gain immediate gratification of its wishes

neodissociation theory of hypnosis

acknowledges the importance of social context to hypnosis, but it views the hypnotic state as an altered state

Two components to keep in mind

a. When there is strong evidence of a genetic factor in a psychological disorder people DO NOT inherit the disorder directly - they inherit a predisposition toward the disorder. b. There can be psychological abnormalities due to an adverse response to medications or other physical illness causing these behaviors that will stop when the illness stops or the meds are out of the system.

Fluid intelligence

abstract reasoning and mental flexibility—peaks in the early 20s and declines slowly as people age.

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved may develop if the child is not readily resolved

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

larks

alertness decreases between 2:00 and 5:00 p.m. cortisol, the biochemical substance that ramps up our bodies' alertness in emergencies, before noon

hallucinations

an imaginary sensation

Basic emotions

are unlearned and universal; that is, they are found in all cultures, are reflected in the same facial expressions, and emerge in children according to their own biological timetable of development. Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, joy or happiness, and sadness or distress are usually considered basic emotions

Tests are valid if they predict appropriate outcome variables.

are valid if they predict appropriate outcome variables.

During REM dreams

areas of the brain responsible for emotions and the primary visual cortex are active, but the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine are less plentiful

Vygotsky

argued that private speech helps children verbalize problem-solving steps.

Animals

become addicted more readily to cocaine than to any other drug, and those who are addicted to multiple substances prefer cocaine when offered a choice of drugs

Babbling

begins at age 6 months, followed by single words sometime during the second year, two-word sentences at ages 18 to 20 months, and telegraphic speech between 2 and 3 years of age, and then the acquisition of grammatical rules

Puberty

begins the adolescent growth spurt, followed by development of the primary and secondary sex characteristics. Early maturation provides enhanced status for boys but is also associated with aggressiveness and substance abuse. Early-maturing girls are often self-conscious and dissatisfied with their bodies. They are also more likely to be exposed prematurely to alcohol and drug use and to have early sexual experiences and unwanted pregnancies. Religious values, family structure, academic achievement, and involvement in sports are correlated with later age at first intercourse.

Short term memory

brief storage for information currently being used capacity: about 7 item (5-9) duration: less than 30 seconds our ability to pay attention allows us to grab on to some sensory information and send it to the next stage of processing

reflexes

built-in responses to certain stimuli that are needed to ensure survival in their new world. Sucking, swallowing, coughing, and blinking are some necessary behaviors that newborns can perform right away

anorexia nervosa

characterized by an overwhelming, irrational fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self-starvation, and excessive weight loss.

When working real-world problems

children at the concrete operations stage (ages 6 to 11 or 12 years) are able to apply logical operations to problems that can be tested in the real world

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Thorndike

concluded that most learning occurs through trial and error. He claimed that the consequences of a response determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened (the law of effect). In Skinner's operant conditioning, behaviors change as a result of the consequences they produce. Reinforcement occurs when consequences cause behaviors to increase. Punishment occurs when consequences cause behaviors to decrease.

Empty love

consists of commitment without intimacy or passion. Sometimes, a stronger love deteriorates into empty love, in which the commitment remains, but the intimacy and passion have died.

out-group

consists of individuals specifically identified by the in-group as not belonging

Tolman

demonstrated that rats could learn to run to the end of a maze just as quickly when allowed to explore it freely as when they were reinforced with food for getting to the end. His hypothesis was that the rats formed a cognitive map of the maze.

personal unconscious

develops as a result of one's own experience and is therefore unique to each person. It contains all the experiences, thoughts, and perceptions accessible to the conscious, as well as repressed memories, wishes, and impulses Jung's name for the unconscious mind as described by Freud Jung's term for that portion of the unconscious corresponding roughly to the Freudian id According to Jung, the level of awareness that houses material that is not within one's conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten.

Sleep deprivation effects

difficulty concentrating, lapses in attention, and general irritability

neo-Piagetians

explain age-based differences in performance on the problems Piaget used in his studies as a function of changes in children's use of their working memories If the neo-Piagetians are correct, then children younger than age 6 or 7 will likely forget what the original presentation of marbles looked like when they are shown the transformation.

Neo-Piagetians

explain cognitive development as a function of working memory development.

separation anxiety

fear and distress when the parent leaves them

Visual Information

first process in the occipital lobe area in the rear of the brain.

The four types of schedules of reinforcement are

fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules

Impression formation

forming of the first knowledge a person has about another person

Rescorla

found that the critical element in classical conditioning is whether the conditioned stimulus provides information that enables the organism to reliably predict the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Pragmatics

includes the social and nonverbal aspects of language.

Sleep terrors

frightening dreamlike experiences that occur during the deepest stage of non-REM sleep, shortly after the child has gone to sleep happens during stage 4 of sleep

Russell

from Stanford University studies a new breed of psychological scientists, a neuro ecologists who applies the methodologies of Brain Science Study of animal behavior in their natural habitat is work dramatically illustrates the interaction of brain behavior and environment

In the germinal stage

from conception to 2 weeks, the egg is fertilized, and the zygote attaches itself to the uterine wall.

cognitive-neoassociationistic model

frustration leads to aggression by eliciting negative emotions

Successful aging includes

good physical health, retention of cognitive abilities, and continuing engagement in social and productive activities.

Divergent thinking

he ability to produce multiple ideas, answers, or solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution

general slowing

he breakdown of myelin thus explains one of the most predictable characteristics of aging—the general slowing of behavior—a process in which the reductions in the speed of neural transmission lead to a slowing of physical and mental functions (Birren & Fisher, 1995). With degeneration of the myelin, the brain takes longer to process information, and reaction time is slower.

During REM sleep

he large muscles of the body are paralyzed, respiration and heart rate are fast and irregular, brain activity increases, and rapid eye movements and vivid dreams occur

During NREM sleep

heart rate and respiration are slow and regular, and blood pressure and brain activity are at a 24-hour low point; there is little body movement and no rapid eye movements

Imagery

helpful for learning new skills and for practicing those we already know. It can also help us store and retrieve information

opioid peptides

hey are known collectively as endorphins

Ainsworth

identified four attachment patterns in infants: secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized/disoriented. Fathers' patterns of interaction with children differ from those of mothers. Thus, mothers and fathers exert unique influences on children's development, and, ideally, children need both influences. Children who interact regularly with their fathers tend to have higher IQs, do better in social situations, and manage frustration better than children lacking such interaction.

actor-observer

implies that we make one kind of attribution when we are actors and another when we are observers

body senses

in the crier to load

Romantic love

is a combination of intimacy and passion. Romantic lovers are bonded emotionally (as in liking) and physically through passionate arousal.

Psychological drug dependence

is a craving or irresistible urge for the drug's pleasurable effects; it is even more difficult to combat than physical dependence

instinct

is a fixed behavior pattern that is characteristic of every member of a species and is assumed to be genetically programmed. Thus, instincts represent one kind of biological motivation.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

is a long-lasting increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses. LTP is important because it may be the basis for learning and memory at the level of the neurons.

phobia

is a persistent, irrational fear of an object, situation, or activity that poses no real danger (or whose danger is blown out of proportion) other than agoraphobia and social phobia

The sexual response cycle

is strongly influenced by hormones. The sex glands manufacture hormones—estrogen and progesterone in the ovaries and androgens in the testes. The adrenal glands in both sexes also produce small amounts of these hormones. Females have considerably more estrogen and progesterone than males do, so these are known as the female sex hormones. Males have considerably more androgens, the male sex hormones.

The nativist position

is that language ability is largely innate because it is acquired in stages that occur in a fixed order at the same ages in most children throughout the world.

Validity

is the ability or power of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

Ecstasy, or methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA)

is the best known of the designer drugs

Pavlov's study of a conditioned reflex in dogs

led him to discover a model of learning called classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (a tone in Pavlov's experiments) is presented shortly before an unconditioned stimulus (food in Pavlov's experiments), which naturally elicits, or brings forth, an unconditioned response (salivation for Pavlov's dogs). After repeated pairings, the conditioned stimulus alone (the tone) comes to elicit the conditioned response (salivation).

endorphins

like narcotics can create the mood of euphoria that run his experience and reduce pain, depending on which peptides attached themselves to which receptors. In fact, they play a major role in most experiences that involve pleasure or pain. The action of each one is mediated through different types of receptors and what all of them do for us is nothing short of remarkable

hepatitis

liver inflammation

personality disorder

long-standing, inflexible ways of behaving that create a variety of problems

successful aging

maintaining one's physical health, mental abilities, social competence, and overall satisfaction with life as one gets older Successful aging has been the focus of much aging-related research in recent years. As defined by authors John Rowe and Robert Kahn (1998), successful aging has three components: good physical health, retention of cognitive abilities, and continuing engagement in social and productive activities.

circadian (evolutionary) theory

maintains that circadian rhythms, which evolved to protect humans from predators during the night, dictate periods of sleep and alertness.

Somniloquy

sleep talking

Stress hormones

may disrupt witnesses' memories, leading to gaps that eventually are filled in through reconstructive memory processes. Interviewers' questions can introduce information that witnesses believe is a part of their own memory of the event

triangular theory of love

model of love based on three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment; several types of love exist, depending on the presence or absence of each of these components

REM dreams

more dreams, emotional, illogical, prone to plot shifts, biologically crucial the type that occur almost continuously during each REM period have a story-like or dreamlike quality and are more visual, vivid, and emotional are associated with distributions of activity in the forebrain that are very similar to those exhibited by individuals with delusional disorders while they are awake

bright light

most significant environmental cue

expectancy theory

motivation to engage in a given activity is determined by (1) expectancy

humanistic psychology

people are assumed to have a natural tendency toward growth and the realization of their fullest potential. Thus, humanistic personality theories are more optimistic than Freud's psychoanalytic theory. However, like Freud's theory, these perspectives are often criticized as being difficult to test scientifically historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings A clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

observers

people who learn by paying careful attention to what they see

savant syndrome

people with savant syndrome, who show a combination of intellectual disability and unusual talent or ability.

job satisfaction

predicts not only how happy and productive we are on the job but also how positively we feel about other aspects of our lives

Thurstone

proposed seven primary mental abilities.

explanation

requires an understanding of the conditions under which a behavior or event is likely to occur, in order to "tell or explain" why it happened

Consolidation failure

results from a loss of consciousness as new memories are being encoded. Sometimes, we forget because we don't want to remember something, a process called motivated forgetting. Other times, an item is stored in memory, but we are unable to retrieve it (retrieval failure).

Source monitoring

results in encoding of source memories.

Regression

reverting to a behavior that might have reduced anxiery at an early stage of development

norms

rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

Paraphilic disorders

sexual disorders in which recurrent sexual urges, fantasies, or behavior involve nonhuman objects, children, other nonconsenting persons, or the suffering or humiliation of the individual or his or her partner

In one kind of operant conditioning

shaping, complex behaviors are learned in small steps. In extinction, behaviors disappear when the consequences they formerly produced are no longer available. A discriminative stimulus is one that through its association with reinforcement signals learners about behaviors that are likely to be reinforced.

Cannon-Bard theory

suggests that the following chain of events occurs when a person feels an emotion: Emotion-provoking stimuli are received by the senses and are then relayed simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, which provides the conscious mental experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, which produces the physiological state of arousal In other words, the feeling of an emotion (fear, for example) occurs at about the same time as the experience of physiological arousal (a pounding heart)

tacit knowledge

tacit knowledge is action oriented and is acquired without direct help from others

Herbert Terrace

taught sign language to a chimp they called Nim Chimpsky (after the famed linguist Noam Chomsky) and reported Nim's progress from the age of 2 weeks to 4 years

Sensory Memory

temporary storage for sensory information capacity: large duration: fraction of a second; two seconds

nature-nurture debate

the debate over whether intelligence is primarily the result of heredity or environment

oxytocin

the hormone that stimulates the uterus to contract during labor, rise as the uterine tissues become more sensitive to its effects Interestingly, too, oxytocin seems to influence the woman's emotions in ways that help to prepare her psychologically for both the anxieties of labor and the process of bonding with the infant after birth

Episodic memory

the type of declarative memory that records events as they have been subjectively experienced

Schachter-Singer theory

two things must happen for a person to feel an emotion: (1) The person must first experience physiological arousal and (2) there must then be a cognitive interpretation, or explanation, of the physiological arousal so that the person can label it as a specific emotion concluded, a true emotion can occur only if a person is physically aroused and can find some reason for it

operant

voluntary behavior

Stress dwarfism

was thought and flip the James Barry, the famous author Peter Pan very severe early childhood trauma over the tragic death of his only brother. His mother's neighbor's son

circadian rhythms

within each 24-hour period, the regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions and behaviors