Psychology section 2

direct observation:

-The term "non-intrusive" is often used to characterise this technique: users do what they normally do without being disturbed by the observers. -Users can be observed in the environment where the system is normally used. -This is why direct observation is said to have high face validity, also referred to as external validity or ecological validity. -We must always be aware of the possibility of the so called "Hawthorne Effect": people usually perform better under observation because of the attention paid to them. -During direct observation it is common for an observer to be present who sits passively and records as accurately as possible what is going on. The observation can be free or structured where observers record events as belonging to one of a number of discrete categories identified. The number of categories adopted depends on what the observers intend the data will be used for. Advantages: -Direct method for collecting data or information -Data collected is accurate in nature and reliable. -Improves precision. -Problem of depending on respondents is decreased. -Helps in understanding the verbal response more efficiently. -Observations can be made continuously and also for a larger duration of time period. -Observation is less demanding. Disadvantages: -Problems of the past cannot be studied. -Having no other option one has to depend on the documents available. -Observation require especial instruments or tool which are very expensive -Cannot study opinions -Cannot study attitudes -Sampling cannot be used -Observation involves a lot of time -The presence of the observer.

Research methods in psychology (6 things):

1. experimental research design 2. quasi experimental research design 3. direct observation 4. survey method 5. differences 6. advantages and disadvantages of each method

Survey Method:

A survey is defined as a brief interview or discussion with individuals about a specific topic. The term survey is often used to mean collect information. There are three specific techniques of survey research: 1) Questionnaires - a series of written questions a participant answers. This method gathers responses to questions that are essay or agree/neutral/disagree style. 2) Interviews - questions posed to an individual to obtain information about him or her. 3) Surveys - brief interviews and discussions with individuals about a specific topic. A survey is a quick interview, with the surveyor asking only a few questions. Advantages: -Relatively easy to administer -Can be developed in less time -Cost-effective, but cost depends on survey mode -Can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail, email, kiosk, or telephone. -Conducted remotely can reduce or prevent geographical dependence -Capable of collecting data from a large number of respondents -Numerous questions can be asked about a subject -A broad range of data can be collected Disadvantages: -Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest answers -Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in a unfavorable manner. -Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given answer because of lack of memory on the subject, or even boredom. -Surveys with closed-ended questions may have a lower validity -Data errors due to question non-responses may exist.

experimental research design:

It is the most sophisticated research method. It is defined as: observation under controlled conditions. The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. Experimental research design are concerned with examination of the effect of indipendent variable on the dependent variable; where the indipendent variable is manipulated though treatment or intervention, the effect of this intervention is observed on the dependent variable. An experimental research design has got 3 essential characteristics: -Manipulation: refers to conscious control of the indipendent variable by the researcher through treatment or intevention to observe its effect on the dependent variable. -Control: refers to use of control group and controlling the effect of extraneous variables on the dependent variable. The subjects in the control group and experimental group are similar in number and characteristics. The difference between the two groups is: the experimental group receives treatment, control group does not receive any treatment at all. This method allow the researcher to observe the effect of the treatment. -Randomization: any subject has an equal chance of being assigned to experimental or control group.

quasi experimental research design:

Quasi-experimental research design involves the manipulation of the independent variable to observe the effect on the dependent variable, but it lacks of randomization or a control group. It is used to establish the casuality in situations where researchers are not able to randomly assign the subjects to groups, or where is not possible to have a control group. Quasi-experimantal research design has essential characteristics: -Manipulation of the independent variable to observe the effects on the dependent variable -Lack of one or two of the essential characteristics of an experimental research design -Independent variable is not manipulated in a complete controlled situation Advantages: -More practical and feasible -More suitable for real-world natural settings -It allows to evaluate the impact of variables under natural conditions -It may be able to establish casual relationships Disadvantages: -There is no control over extraneous variables influencing the dependant variable -The absence of a control group or lack of control over the setting makes the results less reliable and weak for the establishment of a casual relationship between independent and dependant variables