Psychology vocab ch5,6,4

State-dependent-memory:

-information that is better retrieved in the physiological or emotional state in which it was encoded and stored, or learned

latent learning

-learning that is hidden or concealed

LSD:

-lysergic acid diethylamide; a hallucinogen

Maintenance Rehearsal:

-mental repetition of information to keep it in memory

Encode:

-modifies information so that it can be placed in memory; encoding is the first stage of information processing

In _______ interference, older learning interferes with the capacity to retrieve more recently learned material

-proactive

Extinguished responses often show _______________ recovery as a function of the passage of time

-spontaneous

Amphetamines:

-stimulants derived from alpha-methyl-beta phenylethylamine, a colorless liquid consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen

Experience enhances the avenues of communication among brain cells by development of dendrites and __________

-synapses

Serial-position effect:

-tendency to recall more accurately the first/last items in a series

observational learning

-the acquisition of knowledge and skills through the observation of others (who are called models) rather than by means of direct experience

Priming:

-the activation of specific associations in memory, often as a result of repetition and without making a conscious effort to access the memory

Savings:

-the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed

Marijuana:

-the dried vegetable matter of the Cannabis sativa plant

Selective Attention:

-the focus of one's consciousness on a particular stimulus

Proactive Interference:

-the interference by old learning with the ability to retrieve material learned recently

Retroactive Interference:

-the interference of new learning with the ability to retrieve material learned previously

Elaborative Rehearsal:

-the kind of coding in which new information is related to information that is already known

extinction

-the process by which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur (The learned responses are said to be extinguished.)

Memory:

-the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved

spontaneous recovery

-the recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time

operant

-the same as operant behavior

Echoic Memory:

-the sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of auditory stimuli

Iconic Memory:

-the sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of visual stimuli

Biofeedback Training: (BFT)

-the systematic feeding information back to an organism about a bodily function so that the organism can gain control of that function

Long term memory (LTM):

-the type or stage of memory capable of relatively permanent storage

Sensory memory:

-the type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus; sensory memory holds impressions briefly, but long enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically continuous

contingency theory

-the view that learning occurs when stimuli provide information about the likelihood of the occurrence of other stimuli

Interference Theory:

-the view that we may forget stored material because other learning interferes with it

9.) Evan met Lesley at a party three weeks ago. He bumps into her on the way to class. He feels as though he knows her name but just can't retrieve the information. this experience is referred to as:

-tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

reinforce

-to follow a response with a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which people are suggestible and behave as though they are in a ________

-trance

A response to an unconditioned stimulus is called a(n) ____ response.

-unconditioned

Narcolepsy:

-A "sleep attack" in which a person falls asleep suddenly and irresistibly

Depressant:

-A drug that lowers the rate of activity of the nervous system

Mindfulness Meditation (MM):

-A form of meditation that provides clients with techniques they can use to focus on the present moment rather than ruminate about problems

Rapid Eye Movement:

-A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, which have been linked to dreaming

Role Theory:

-A theory that explains hypnotic events in terms of the person's ability to act as though he or she were hypnotized

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner used conditioning to teach a boy who is known as "Little ___________" to fear rats

-Albert

Hypnosis:

-An altered state of consciousness in which people are highly suggestible and behave as though they are in a trance

__________ is a stimulant that boosts self-confidence but also triggers rises in bp and constricts coronary arteries

-Cocaine

Nonconscious:

-Descriptive of bodily processes, such as growing hair, of which we cannot become conscious; we may "recognize" that our hair is growing, but we cannot directly experience the biological process

________ imagery is the ability to retain exact mental representations of visual stimuli over long periods of time

-Eidectic

Sleep Terrors:

-Frightening, dream-like experiences that occur during the deepest stage of NREM sleep; nightmares, in contrast, occur during REM sleep

________ substances distort perceptions

-Hallucinogenic

Direct Inner Awareness:

-Knowledge of one's own thoughts, feelings, and memories without the use of sensory organs

Alpha Waves:

-Rapid low-amplitude brain waves that have been linked to feelings of relaxation

Theta Waves:

-Slow brain waves produced during the hypnagogic state

Delta Waves:

-Strong, slow brain waves usually emitted during stage 4 sleep

SLeep Apnea:

-Temporary absence or cessation of breathing while sleeping

Supression:

-The deliberate, or conscious, placing of certain ideas, impulses, or images out of awareness

Transcendental Meditation:

-The simplified form of meditation brought to the United States by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and used as a method for coping with stress

Activation synthesis model:

-The view that dreams reflect activation of cognitive activity by the reticular formation and synthesis of this activity into a pattern

Continuity Hypothesis:

-The view that the content of dreams tends to be consistent with previous cognitive activity

law of effect

-Thorndike's view that pleasant events stamp in responses, and unpleasant events stamp them out

flooding

-a behavioral fear-reduction technique based on principles of classical conditioning; fear-evoking stimuli (CSs) are presented continuously in the absence of actual harm so that fear responses (CRs) are extinguished

systematic desensitization

-a behavioral fear-reduction technique in which a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli is presented while the person remains relaxed

Abstinence syndrome:

-a characteristic cluster of withdrawal symptoms that results from sudden decrease in an addictive drug's level of usage

higher-order conditioning

-a classical conditioning procedure in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response brought forth by a CS by being paired repeatedly with that conditioned stimulus

Consciousness:

-a concept with many meanings, including sensory awareness of the world outside, direct inner awareness of one's thoughts and feelings, personal unity, and the waking state

Stimulant:

-a drug that increases activity of the nervous system

counterconditioning

-a fear-reduction technique in which pleasant stimuli are associated with fear-evoking stimuli so that the fear-evoking stimuli lose their aversive qualities

Opiates:

-a group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy that provide a euphoric rush and depress the nervous system

Mescaline:

-a hallucinogen derived from the mescal (peyote) cactus

conditioned response

-a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Method of savings:

-a measure of retention in which the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed is calculated

Icon:

-a mental representation of a visual stimulus that is held briefly in sensory memory

Echo:

-a mental representation of an auditory stimulus (sound) that is held briefly in sensory memory

cognitive mapping

-a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

conditioned stimulus

-a previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has been paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already elicited that response

Substance abuse disorder:

-a problem characterized by loss of control over usage, social impairment, risky use, and tolerance and withdrawal symptoms

fixed-interval schedule

-a schedule in which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available

variable interval schedule

-a schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available

fixed-ratio schedule

-a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses

classical conditioning

-a simple form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by another stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the other stimulus

operant conditioning

-a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior because it is reinforced

reflex

-a simple unlearned response to a stimulus

Hallucinogenics:

-a substance that causes hallucinations

Schemas:

-a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or an expectation, that can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations

4.) Stacy took tennis lessons when she was young, while in college she decided to enroll in a tennis class. Although she had not played in many years she realized she had shifted her racket in the correct forehand grip w/o thinking. Stacy's _______ memory made this possible. a) Implicit b) Episodic c) Psychomotor d) Semantic

-a) Implicit

8.) The most popular drug on college campuses is ___ a) alcohol b) marijuana c) cocaine d) LSD

-a) alcohol

5.) Breaking THUNSTOFAM into three syllables THUN-STO-FAM and then repeating them many times in an effort to remember the 10 letters is an example of using the technique a) chunking/maintanance rehearsal b) encoding and elaborative rehearsal c) sensory memory and short term memory d) working memory and semantic memory

-a) chunking/maintanance rehearsal

5.) Spotted zebras learn to stop going to a particular water hole after approaching it several times and finding it is dry. However, after a m month or two passes, they may return to the water hole. Learning to stop going to the water hole because it is dry, but then returning to it after time passes is an example of ________ followed by ___________

-a) extinction; spontaneous recovery

Biological or physiological symptoms of a substance use disorder include tolerance and an (a)_________ syndrome when one discontinues use of the substance

-absistinence,withdrawel

Barbiturates:

-an addictive depressant used to relieve anxiety or induce sleep

Memory Trace:

-an assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus

Engram:

-an assumed electrical circuit in the brain that corresponds to a memory trace

stimulus

-an environmental condition that elicits a response

Electromyograph (EMG):

-an instrument that measures muscle tension

model

-an organism that engages in a response that is then imitated by another organism

primary reinforcer

-an unlearned reinforcer whose effectiveness is based on the biological makeup of the organism and not on learning

Working memory:

-another term for short-term memory

3.) Which of the following statements is correct concerning brain waves and the sleep cycle? a. Low-frequency brain waves are associated with being awake b. High-frequency brain waves are associated with being awake c. There are no recordable brain waves when we sleep d. It is difficult to tell the difference between "sleep" brain waves and "awake" brain waves

-b. High-frequency brain waves are associated with being awake

1.) According to behaviorists, _________ is a relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior that occurs because of experience. a.) extinction b.) learning c) acquisition d.) higher order conditioning

-b.) learning

operant behavior

-behavior that operates on, or manipulates, the environment

successive approximation

-behaviors that are progressively closer to a target behavior

4.) Johnny was tormented in the school yard every day by a bully with bright red frizzy hair. One day, Johnny's father brought his boss, Mr. Dale, home. The boss had bright red frizzy hair and Johnny ran to his room crying. Mr. Dale's frizzy hair functioned as a ______ and Johnny's response was a ________ a) UCS; CR b) UCS; UR c) CS; CR d) CR; CS

-c) CS; CR

2.) The notion that animals that are most at risk from predators sleep less is taken from which of the following perspectives? a) Behaviorist b) Environmental c) Evolutionary d) Developmental

-c) Evolutionary

2) Harry told himself to remember to get 3 things at the store. On his way to the grocery he stopped to talk to Jason. When he got to the store he could only remember 2 items, chatting has interfered with Harry's... a) Episodic memory b) Semantic memory c) Prospective memory d) Implicit memory

-c) Prospective memory

5.) In his classic study of transcendental meditation, Benson found that meditation leads to ___ a) spiritual awakening b) expanded consciousness c) a relaxation response d) more intense hypnagogic states

-c) a relaxation response

3.) Roberto kept seeing signs on the highway advertising Pizza Hut. He started to salivate at the possibility of having pizza. The signs were a) unconditioned stimuli b) unconditioned responses c) conditioned stimuli d) conditioned responses

-c) conditioned stimuli

Professor Garcia gives a quiz every Monday, His students would then tend to _______ bc they are on a schedule of reinforcement a) start studying immediately after the quiz: fixed ratio b) study regularly through the week; fixed interval c) study on Sunday nights; fixed interval d) pay attention in class; variable interval

-c) study on Sunday nights; fixed interval

Hydrocarbons:

-chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon

Opioids:

-chemicals that act on opiate receptors but are not derived from the opium poppy

A response to a conditioned stimulus is called a_____________ response

-conditioned

According to ________________ theory, learning occurs because a CS indicates that the UCS is likely to follow

-contingency

A substance abuse disorder is characterized by loss of _________over the use of a substance

-control

6.) If you learn how to do something once, and then forget it, what is most likely to happened if you attempt to relearn it? a) Anxiety will interfere with your attempt to relearn it b) The original learning will be on the tip of your tongue c) Your hippocampus will be flooded with dopamine d) You will relearn it more quickly than you originally learned it

-d) You will relearn it more quickly than you originally learned it

2.) While attempting to identify neural receptors that trigger salivary glands, Ivan Pavlov inadvertently found that responses can be learned through a) operant conditioning b) observation c) instinct d) association

-d) association

When behavior is followed by negative reinforcement, the behavior is likely to a) be extinguished b) be suppressed c) decrease d) increase

-d) increase

7.) The process if modifying information so that we can place it in memory is called

-encoding

Repeated presentation of a CS (such as a tone) without the UCS (such as meat) will _________________ the CR (salivation)

-extinguish

Anterograde amnesia:

-failure to remember events that occurred after physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma

Retrograde amnesia:

-failure to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma

During a typical 8 hour night, we undergo (how many?) ________ trips through different stages of sleep.

-five

In a ___________________-_________________ schedule a specific amount of time must elapse since a previous correct response before reinforcement becomes available

-fixed-interval

generalization

-in conditioning, the tendency for a CR to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned

Infantile Amnesia:

-inability to recall events that occur prior to the age of three or so; also termed childhood amnesia

1.) When we say that we are "conscious of" seeing something or hearing a sound, we are referring to consciousness as a) a stream b) a behavorial concept c) the sense of personal unity d) sensory awareness

d) sensory awareness

learning

-(1) according to behaviorists, a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience; (2) according to cognitive theorists, the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience

Circadian Rhythm:

-A cycle that is connected with the 24-hour period of the earth's rotation

Unconscious:

-In psychodynamic theory, descriptive of ideas and feelings that are not available to awareness; also: without consciousness

Preconscious:

-In psychodynamic theory, descriptive of material that is not in awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing one's attention

Repression:

-In psychodynamic theory, the automatic (unconscious) ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas, impulses, or images from awareness

shaping

-a procedure for teaching complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximations of the target behavior

postive reinforcer

-a reinforcer that when presented increases the frequency of an operant

negative reinforcer

-a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency of an operant

variable-ratio schedule

-a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses

continuous reinforcement

-a schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced

Chunk:

-a stimulus or group of stimuli that are perceived as a discrete piece of information

unconditioned stimulus

-a stimulus that elicits a response from an organism prior to conditioning

secondary reinforcer

-a stimulus that gains reinforcement value through association with established reinforcers

Hippocampus:

-a structure in the limbic system that plays an important role in the formation of new memories

10.) Which of the following is most likely to be prescribed for use with hyperactive children? a) Ritalin b) Morphine c) Dopamine d) Tranquilizers

-a) Ritalin

Tyrone watches tv violence for an hour or two a day, but he is not violent outside the home. Then one day Billy attacks him on the way home from school, and Tyrone imitates the behavior he sav on TV to fight Billy off and teach Billy to never attack again. Although Tyrone had not shown violent behavior until he was attacked, we can assume that when he was watching tv he was engaging in a) latent learning b) shaping c) discrimination training d) operant conditioning

-a) latent learning

4.) Allegra is said to have hypnotic suggestibility. She is likely to ___ a.) be prone to fantasy b) have no idea as to what is expected in the trance state c) attend to her own internal feelings rather than the instructions of the hypnotist d) all of the above

-a.) be prone to fantasy

According to the ____________-synthesis model, dreams reflect neural activity

-activation

orienting reflex

-an unlearned response in which an organism attends to a stimulus

unconditioned response

-an unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus

Phencyclidine: (PCP)

-another hallucinogen whose name is an acronym for its chemical structure

conditioned reinforcer

-another term for a secondary reinforcer

Consciousness has several meanings, including sensory awareness, the selective aspect of attention, direct inner_________, and the waking state.

-awareness

6.) Which of the following are children most likely to "outgrow"? a) Insomnia b) Bedwetting c) Sleep Apnea d) Narcolepsy

-b) Bedwetting

9.) Elyse is a college student who has developed a tolerance to heroin and experiences withdrawal symptoms whenever she doesn't have a "fix" at least every 8 hours. She feels that she has lost control and has to organize her life around her habit. She would be classified as having a ___ a) substance intoxication b) a substance use disorder c) poor judgment d) an anxiety disorder

-b) a substance use disorder

1.) Remembering what you had for dinner last night, to the time you fell off your bike for the first time. a) implicit b) episodic c) dependent d) semantic

-b) episodic

6.) Which of the following best illustrates operant conditioning according to Skinner? a) a dog salivates at the sound of a dinner bell b) a cat comes running when it hears the sound of a can opener c) a dolphin is given fish every time it jumps through a hoop d) the mating behavior of salmon

-c) a dolphin is given fish every time it jumps through a hoop

3.) You recall what you ate for breakfast this morning, but you know who wrote Hamlet. Your knowledge that Shakespeare wrote Hamlet is an example of... a) Episodic memory b) Prospective memory c) Implicit memory d) Semantic memory

-d) Semantic memory

Slot machines tend to keep gamblers playing by using a _______ schedule of reinforcement a) fixed interval b) variable interval c) fixed-ratio d) variable ratio

-d) variable ratio

7.) When Clay joined AA in order to stop drinking, he received a pamphlet that described the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. These included a. high blood pressure and rapid pulse b. restlessness and tremors c. anxiety and weakness d. all of the above

-d. all of the above

10.) From the clinical evidence on brain injury, it appears that storage bins for long-term memories are located in:

-different areas of the brain

Flashbacks:

-distorted perceptions or hallucinations that occur days or weeks after LSD usage but mimic the LSD experience

Psychoactive substances:

-drugs that have psychological effects such as stimulation or distortion of perceptions

Narcotics:

-drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep; the term is usually reserved for opiates

Another way of storing information is by _________ rehearsal, when we relate new information to things we already know

-elaborative

Long-term potentiation (LTP):

-enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission that follows brief, rapid stimulation

Memories of the events that happen to a person are _______ memories

-episodic

Detailed memories of surprising, emotional, important, events are termed:

-flashbulb memories

In the behavior-therapy method of __________________, a client is continuously exposed to fear-evoking stimulus until the fear response is extinguished

-flooding

Semantic Memory:

-general knowledge, as opposed to episodic memory

Tolerance:

-habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed to achieve similar effects

Repression:

-in Freud's psychodynamic theory, the ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from conscious awareness

discrimination

-in conditioning, the tendency for an organism to distinguish between a CS and similar stimuli that do not forecast a UCS

Displace:

-in memory theory, to cause information to be lost from short-term memory by adding new information

discriminative stimulus

-in operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates that reinforcement is available

Context-dependent memory:

-information that is better retrieved in the context in which it was encoded and stored, or learned

Dissociative Amnesia:

-loss of memory of personal information that is thought to stem from psychological conflict or trauma

One way of storing information is by ___________ rehearsal, or by mentally repeating it

-maintanence

8.) Mentally repeating a list or saying it to yourself refers to:

-maintenance rehearsal

In mediation, one focuses on a ________ to alter the normal person-environment relationship

-mantra

Nonsense syllables:

-meaningless sets of two consonants, with a vowel sandwiched in between, that are used to study memory

Retrospective Memory:

-memory for past events, activities, and learning experiences, as shown by explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit memories

Explicit Memory:

-memory that clearly and distinctly expresses (explicates) specific information

Implicit Memory:

-memory that is suggested (implied) but not plainly expressed, as illustrated in the things that people do but do not state clearly

Prospective Memory:

-memory to perform an act in the future, as at a certain time or when a certain event occurs

___________________ reinforcers increase the probability that operants will occur when they are removed

-negative

Paired associates:

-nonsense syllables presented in pairs in experiments that measure recall

Episodic Memory:

-of events that happen to a person or that take place in the person's presence

partial reinforcement

-one of several reinforcement schedules in which not every correct response is reinforced

Because EEG patterns during REM sleep resemble those of the waking state, REM sleep is also called __________ sleep

-paradoxical

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT):

-phenomenon the feeling that information is stored in memory although it cannot be readily retrieved; also called the feeling-of-knowing experience

________________ learning breaks down learning tasks into small steps and reinforces correct performance of each step

-programmed

biological preparedness

-readiness to acquire a certain kind of CR due to the biological makeup of the organism

In ________ interference , new learning interferes with the retrieval of old learning

-retroactive

__________ memories concern generalized knowledge

-semantic

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model hypothesizes three stages of memory:

-sensory, short-term, long-term

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM):

-sleep the first four stages of sleep

Secondhand smoke:

-smoke from the tobacco products and exhalations of other people; also referred to as passive smoking

Retrieval:

-the location of stored information and its return to consciousness; the third stage of information processing

Eidetic memory:

-the maintenance of detailed visual memories over several minutes

Storage:

-the maintenance of information over time; the second stage of information processing

Short term memory (STS):

-the type or stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays; also called working memory

Response set theory:

-the view that response expectancies play a key role in the production of the experiences suggested by the hypnotist