PSYO 317 Midterm Study Guide Questions
Diads of Triads Test-- Hypothesis, method, results, intended and (if applicable) alternative interpretation of results, new experiment done to discount alternative interpretation (if applicable), conclusion
- Hypothesis: - Method: participants are presented with two triads of words, one coherent and one incoherent, and asked to select which was the coherent triad and give the common association - Results: participants selected the coherent triad 58% of the time, implying that even if coherent triads were not activating common association enough to generate an answer, it was enough to inform a forced choice - Interpretation of results: there exists a subconscious processes prior to a eureka moment, and participants sense absence of coherence in incoherent triad but not coherence in a coherent triad - New experiment: now give convergent and divergent triads and asked to give the common association resulting in a significant positive correlation between the degree of semantic convergence - Conclusion: there is something to do with the meaning (the semantics), and convergent meaning aids in getting it right
Accumulated Clues Task-- Hypothesis, method, results, intended and (if applicable) alternative interpretation of results, new experiment done to discount alternative interpretation (if applicable), conclusion
- Hypothesis: - Method: participants were presented 15 sequential clue words that are low associates of the solution word, and tested to see how many of these words had to be presented before the solution word was correctly guessed—after each clue participants were asked to write a possible answer, indicate a viable possibility, and indicate if they're certain it's correct - Results: on average, they arrived at a hunch by the 10th clue, then were certain by the 12th - Interpretation of results: there was a linear relationship between the clue number and associative closeness of response - Conclusion: associative closeness of responses to solution increases with progression of clues
Partial Word Task-- Hypothesis, method, results, intended and (if applicable) alternative interpretation of results, new experiment done to discount alternative interpretation (if applicable), conclusion
- Hypothesis: Questions-- does partial real word semantically activate entire word in graded fashion? (What about for partial non-word?) - Method: each trial, participants guess the word and incorrect are told another letter of the solution and asked to guess the word again00 researchers only looked at incorrect responses that were subsequently solved though addition of just one more letter in order to investigate whether responses were semantically closer to a solution than chance right before finding the solution - Results: Incorrect responses to partial words were associatively closer to solution than randomly chosen control words (actually used synonyms of words, to control for any effect of orthographic similarity) - Interpretation of results: ? - Conclusion: ?
What were the four experiments that support Bowers et al. theory of insight?
1) Waterloo Gestalt Closure Test 2) Diads of Triads Test 3) Accumulated Clues Task 4) Partial Word Task
What is the Guppy Effect? (Not from study guide)
A violation of compositionality; occurs when something is more typical of combination of concepts than of either concept alone; ex. GUPPY is rated more PET FISH than either PET or FISH
Missed questions: - Be able to discuss the distinction between everyday creativity and eminent creativity, and the notion that every normal human exhibits some degree of creativity (c-creativity) as opposed to the C-creativity of eminent creators - What is the relationship between creativity, conceptual integration, and density of connections? What is the difference between how items are stored in a computer memory and how they are stored in human memory? What is the significance of this for creativity? - Give a real-life or made-up example of a moment of insight, and explain (with diagrams if necessary) what was likely happening in the inventor's mind at this moment. - What underlying reason was put forward to explain some of the negative personality traits associated with creativity? (Can you think of any others?) -What is a peak experience and what is its relationship to creativity?
Heck :(
Waterloo Gestalt Closure Test-- Hypothesis, method, results, intended and (if applicable) alternative interpretation of results, new experiment done to discount alternative interpretation (if applicable), conclusion
Hypothesis: people detect coherence before they can identify it - Method: involve showing participants pictures that partially depict something and asking what they see—researchers were interested in people who didn't quite solve it because it speaks to what is happening before solving something—"the intuition phase"—now, they show the participants the genuine gestalt as well as a pseudo gestalt (has all the same fragments of the image but in mixed orientation) and asked them to identify the image, or if they couldn't guess which is the genuine and the pseudo gestalt, then rate their confidence from 0-2 - Results: participants were significantly more likely to guess unsolved coherent gestalts 60% of the time - Interpretation of results: people can implicitly intuit the nature of the gestalt before identifying it... But there were a lot of criticisms - New experiment: they did the same but extinguished alternative interpretations by forcing the choice by providing 4 words in which the participants could choose from to identify the partial image—they were significantly more likely than chance (52% vs. 25%) to identify the correct word for the pseudo gestalt, and even more (69% vs. 25%) in terms of the real gestalt - Conclusion: since the real gestalt was more successful than the pseudo gestalt at priming knowledge of content in forced choice, this supports it was content that informed choices rather than principles of object-hood aesthetic virtues
Explain why creativity reason brain researchers are more focused on neural circuits than specific brain areas
Looking at neural circuits allows for researchers to examine the relationship between regions of the brain instead of jus the functioning of a single region on its own
What is the conventional thinking stage? (Not from study guide)
The level of moral reasoning typical of adolescents and adults- to reason in a conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations
Explain what the "Fourth Grade Slump" is
o A reduction in original thinking in fourth-grade children compared with younger or older children—evidence is mixed o This is consistent with Kohlberg's notion that children at this age are in conventional thinking stage
What two hypotheses have been put forward to explain the relationship between creativity and depression?
o Affective state explanation—in negative affective state forge stronger memories which causes a rich web of associations when you return to negative affective state o Freudian explanation—if don't block or repress negative emotions there will be more creative associations
Discuss ways of fostering the development of creativity
o Allow time to engage in pretend play o Motivate them to explore different domains and find the domains that they enjoy o Provide opportunities to develop their talents o Create an environment that the child feels safe and comfortable in order for them to express their ideas o Enjoy and reinforce their creativity o Encourage independence o Encourage expression of feelings
In the Beer Can Theory, what does the 'plastic thingy' symbolize?
o Associations
What is the significance of psychometric theories in creativity research?
o Assumes creativity can be measured reliably and validly o It includes techniques for enhancing creativity
What psychological disorders are associated with creativity?
o Bipolar disorder and depression
Is creativity born or nurtured? Explain your answer
o Both o Nurturing creativity: - Preserve (Capture ideas when you get them) - Surround (Exposure to creative environments and role models) - Challenge (Tackle creatively demanding problems!) - Broaden (Expand your knowledge)
Explain briefly the Classical Concept Theory, including basic idea, an example of how each would be used to determine how we categorize or judge whether something is an instance of a concept, and how does it do at predicting how concepts combine?
o Classical: - Basic idea: concepts obey rules of classical logic - they have definite boundaries and fixed structure; something is instance of concept if has defining properties of concept - Example: X is instance of CAT if has 4 paws, fur, goes 'meow'... - Does it predict how concepts combine: predicts that sets of properties of combined concept is a logical function of their extensions; but no such logical function could be found
Explain what is meant by 'contextual focus'. Of what use is it?
o Contextual focus: the capacity to focus/defocus attention, thereby shift between modes of thought - Focused attention—convergent (analytic) thought: zero in on most relevant properties - Defocused attention—divergent (associative) thought: obscure but potentially relevant properties come into play
Discuss some of the considerations involved with respect to drugs for treating psychological disorders associated with creativity
o Creative people are more drawn to drug abuse and alcoholism, therefore treating them with drugs may cause more harm than good o Drugs can often reduce creative thought
Discuss the relationship between creativity and motivation
o Creative person tends to be intrinsically motivated do it for own personal satisfaction, as opposed to pleasing someone else/ reward/recognition
Discuss the relationship between creativity and intelligence
o Creativity and intelligence are somewhat related o However, intellectual achievement as child is neither necessary nor sufficient for creative achievement as adult o Creativity and intelligence are positively correlated, but only up to an IQ of 120
How do psychologists define creativity? What makes something creative?
o Creativity is an innovative, unconventional approach to life o Creative people find unique solutions to challenges that arise, and capitalize on hidden opportunities o "Creativity is allowing oneself to make mistakes. Art is knowing which ones to keep." o According to psychologists though, for something to be creative, it must be new, useful, aesthetically pleasing, or appropriate to task
What is the difference between creativity, invention and discovery?
o Creativity: Unearthing and sharing something that was not present before; personal o Invention: Unearthing something that was not present before; impersonal o Discovery: Finding something that is already present, and sharing it; impersonal
Explain briefly the Exemplar Concept Theory, including basic idea, an example of how each would be used to determine how we categorize or judge whether something is an instance of a concept, and how does it do at predicting how concepts combine?
o Exemplar: - Basic idea: concept is a collection of salient instances; something new is judged to be an instance of a concept if it is similar to 5-7 significant instances - Example: concept CAT is the collection: my black cat Inkling, my parent's striped cat Spiral, the neighbor's cat Lava, my aunt's orange cat Abazuel, professor's calico cat Lindy Lou - Does it predict how concepts combine: Dunno?
Explain the distinction between exploratory versus transformational creativity
o Exploratory: considers possibilities and finds the best one; ex. Choosing a paint colour at the store from options o Transformational: changes the space of possibilities; ex. Mixing two cans of paint to make your own colour
What is a gestalt closure test item and what is new in the Waterloo approach to the gestalt closure test?
o Gestalt Closure Test: involve showing participants pictures that partially depict something and asking what they see—researchers were interested in people who didn't quite solve it because it speaks to what is happening before solving something—"the intuition phase" o Waterloo approach: now, the show the participants the genuine gestalt as well as a pseudo gestalt (has all the same fragments of the image but in mixed orientation) and asked them to identify the image, or if they couldn't guess which is the genuine and the pseudo gestalt
How was Einstein's brain different from average?
o His parietal operculum region (which is associated with reading, writing, and speech) was missing - The missing region allowed for the inferior parietal lobe (which is associated with synthesizing information from different regions) to grow 15% wider o His sylvian fissure was also partially absent so there was no separation between the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobes, which caused quicker, better connections between the lobes
What is H-creativity?
o Historical creativity; something new to humanity
Give 5 social attributes of creative individuals
o Hostile o Arrogant o Aloof o Unfriendly o Lack of warmth o Introversion o Dominant o Assertive o Enjoys competition
What is a conceptual combination?
o How concepts combine to create a new perspective
Why is an understanding of concepts necessary to understanding creativity?
o If we understand how the mind puts together new combinations of concepts, we gain insight into the creative act o Understanding though is difficult due to violation of principle of compositionality and emergent properties
Explain what induction is and its role in creative process
o Induction involves going beyond the facts; "aims at a unity which the facts present but do not strictly imply"
Explain the relationship between creativity and intuition according to Bowers et al.
o Insight is preceded by unconscious processes leading you toward the answer
What is the lifetime creativity scales questionnaire, and what are some of the results it has brought to light?
o It's goal is to tap into and assess creative potential across different life stages as manifested in real-life creative accomplishments (whether or not outcomes were immediately useful) o This is done by asking people to report on their creative work such as home repairs, counseling a friend, reorganizing an office, etc.; they asked the why and how o They were assessed for quality, quantity, originality, and meaningfulness o Quality strongly correlated with quantity; fluency emerged as strong predictor of originality (the more ideas one has, the greater the chance some will be original); vocational and avocational creativity are somewhat independent
Discuss 4 developmental antecedents of exceptional creativity.
o Low parent-child intensity - Kids with a bad relationship with their parents or with parents who have passed away are often more creative - This contradicts Maslow's theory that creativity is higher in those with tendency toward self-actualization which is fostered by environments that are supportive and free of evaluation - The relationship between childhood adversity and creativity is complex o Parental fostering of intellectual stimulation o Parental tolerance of autonomy o Mentorship and role models
In the Beer Can Theory, what do the beer cans symbolize?
o Memories, concepts, and ideas
Discuss any two examples of analogy in creative endeavours
o Military Problem: Source (known information) - Goal: Use army to capture fortress - Constraint: Sending entire army along one road ineffective - Solution: Send small groups along multiple roads - Outcome: Fortress captured by army o Radiation Problem: Target (Solved using source) - Goal: Use x-rays to destroy tumor - Constraint: Ray of sufficient intensity to destroy tumour kills tissue - Solution: Administer low-intensity rays from multiple directions - Outcome: Tumour destroyed by ray
Give 5 non-social attributes of creative individuals (negative ones)
o Negative: - Impulsive - Lack of conscientiousness - Prone to anxiety and affective illnesses
What are neurds? When do they get used?
o Neurons activated during an associative mode of thought, but not an analytic mode of thought
Give 5 non-social attributes of creative individuals (neutral ones)
o Neutral: - Emotional sensitivity - Norm doubting / nonconformity - Independence - Higher degree of belief in paranormal - Inner restlessness - Inability to tolerate consistency and routine - Hypothesized that these traits are what it takes to break out of constraints
Give 2 psychological criteria of creativity
o New o Useful (I feel like there's more to this..)
Say you are an architect and have to come up with two new designs for a bedroom - a children's bedroom and a master bedroom. Would the same neurons be activated as neurds in both cases? Why or why not?
o No—the thought of a child's room and an adult's room would activate different neurons during associative thought
What is the difference between person-oriented versus task-oriented?
o Person-oriented: people who like the social aspect of creativity (i.e., theatre groups o Task-oriented: people who like the creative process of working with ideas or things
Explain the 'four P's of creativity'
o Person: what makes someone creative o Process: Cognitive mechanisms involved o Product: from a business point of view—staying creative in a given market o Place: the environment contributing to people being creative
Discuss Piaget's concept of the relationship between creative imagination and adaptation
o Piaget proposed that a child's creative imagination develops through a process of adaptation which consists of two key components o These processes can be triggered by tension, problem, inconsistency, sense of incompletion, or desire for self-expression (sometimes called 'the gap')
Give 5 non-social attributes of creative individuals (positive ones)
o Positive: - Openness to experience - Fantasy and imagination - Confidence; lability; high ego strength - Drive / ambition / achievement oriented - Enjoy work and mastery - Verbal fluency - Metaphorical thinking - Flexible decision making - Tolerance of ambiguity - High energy - Ability to resolve seemingly opposite ideas / accommodate seemingly incompatible traits
What are some key areas of the brain known to play a role in creativity?
o Prefrontal cortex: planning, complex cognitive behaviour, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behaviour o Temporal lobe: hearing and speech o Limbic system: emotions o Cerebellum: fine control of motor skills and perhaps thoughts as well
Explain the 4 stages of creativity according to Wallas
o Preparation: learning the tools of the trade o Incubation: going away from the problem and unconsciously exploring opportunities o Insight: new ideas on how to make an impact, solve a problem, or make a new contribution o Verification: no longer just in theory, but now in practice convincing other people of the value of your work
Explain the term 'problem finding'
o Pro-active identification of a problem to be solved or approach to explore; occurs through minding the gap
What is the role of context with respect to concepts?
o Properties shift depending on context, as does typicality of exemplars o Different concepts will be triggered depending on the context
Explain briefly the Prototype Concept Theory, including basic idea, an example of how each would be used to determine how we categorize or judge whether something is an instance of a concept, and how does it do at predicting how concepts combine?
o Prototype: - Basic idea: concepts form around salient stimuli that become "prototypes" against which other items are judged - Example: determine if something is instance of CAT by how similar it is to prototypical cat - Does it predict how concepts combine: No. Doesn't address question of how concepts combine because can't apply rules of addition/multiplication to things with graded typicality and no defining features
Name the different categories of theories of creativity
o Psychometric o Historiometric o Economic
What are conceptual integration and a key point in its attainment?
o Refers to a set of cognitive operations for combining (or blending) words, images, and ideas in a network of "mental spaces" to create meaning o Associations constrain worldview but do so in a way that reflects constraints of world; can hinder generation of novelty but help novelty to be useful—Even once conceptual integration is attained, it is constantly challenged, and prone to disruption - creative thinking helps one to regain it!
Explain the relationship between play, affect, and creativity
o Some studies found that level of child play increased when there was an adult involved, but not when the adult was controlling the play o Through play, children: - Create and solve problems on their own - Communicate with others - Discover a sense of power - Learn to cope with life events - Develop language skills o The Affect in Play Scale asses the extent to which children access emotions through play o Play can help children access and work through emotional memories and fantasies o Positive affect, and at times negative affect, enhance creativity o Affect may make child more likely to engage in pretend play and develop personality traits such as openness, self confidence, risk taking, and intrinsic motivation
What are some differences between creative artists and creative scientists?
o Some traits are more applicable to creative artists than creative scientists: - Emotional sensitivity - Norm doubting / nonconformity - Impulsive - Anxious - Less communal - Less tolerant - Less responsible - More rebellious
Give three attributes of human memory and explain why they are important for creativity using a concrete example
o Sparse - The number of neurons in the brain is much smaller than the number of items that can be encoded o Distributed - Items spread out across cell assemblies called neural cliques containing many neurons and each neuron participates in the encoding of many items o Content addressability - Systematic relationship between content and where it gets encoded, thus memories evoked by stimuli that are similar (Examples of each??)
Explain briefly the State-Concept-Property Theory, including basic idea, an example of how each would be used to determine how we categorize or judge whether something is an instance of a concept, and how does it do at predicting how concepts combine?
o State-Context-Property Theory (SCOP): - Basic idea: concept consists of states, contexts, properties, weights, and transition and probabilities; includes ground state, and two motivating factors (observer effect and entanglement) - Example: properties of a diamond include sparkly, symbolic, and sharp; sharp is the not most typical property but in the context of "cut glass" it is the relevant one - Does it predict how concepts combine: I think so?
What is the relationship between play and creativity (based on the research of according to Sandra Russ)?
o The degree of fantasy/imagination in Grades 1 & 2 was correlated with divergent thinking ability in high school o Play can help children access and work through emotional memories and fantasies
In the Beer Can Theory, what does the theory state?
o The six pack represents a worldview—an autopoietic structure and the way it evolves culture is by putting these buttons together in new ways
Give some possible treatments for psychological disorders
o Therapy and medication
Explain the Geneplore model of creativity
o There are two main processing phases to the creative process: Generate and explore and interpret o Generate: construct pre-incentive structures that have properties promoting creative discoveries o Explore and Interpret: use these properties to develop creative ideas
Explain what a self-made worldview is
o When you take everything you're told and reflect on it, but put your own spin on it o Someone who may have more neurons in their brain may end up encoding things in much more detail o Socially made worldview is basically the opposite—someone who may have fewer neurons will encode less detail
What are coherent, incoherent, divergent, and convergent triads? (Not from study guide)
• Coherent triad: common associate • Incoherent triad: no common associate • Convergent triad: associate retains some meaning across all three words • Divergent triad: associate does not retain some meaning across all three words
What is convergent thought? (Not from study guide)
• Convergent thought: characterized not by generation of single correct solution but by sticking to conventional contexts; deliberate, rule-based, unearths relationships of causation, conductive to manipulation of atomic elements
What is divergent thought? (not from study guide)
• Divergent thought: characterized not by generation of multiple solutions but by playing with 'halo of potentiality' −− new affordances yielded by new contexts −− to hone as few as one idea; spontaneous, intuitive, unearths relationships of correlation, conductive to analogy, metaphor, and breaking out of the box
What are explorers, developers, internally and externally creative people? (Not from study guide)
• Explorer: people who take a blank canvas and create something from scratch • Developer: people who like to take an idea and alter it in some way • Internal: people are creative on their own • External: people are creative in a group
What is mini-c, little-c, pro-c, and big-c? (Not from study guide)
• Mini-c—personal and developmental creativity • Little-c—everyday creativity • Pro-c—professional creativity • Big-c—creative greatness and eminent individuals
Explain the observer effect and entanglement effect (Not from study guide)
• Observer effect: you can't know something about concept without bringing it to mind, but you always bring it to mind in some context, and the context unavoidably alters the concept; again, you can't get away from the observer • Entanglement effect for concepts: you can't do something to one concept without affecting the other (even if it is seemingly unrelated, i.e., far away in combinspace)
What is the Principle of Compositionality (Not from study guide)
• Principle of Compositionality: States that meanings of compositions of words or concepts (e.g. expressions, sentences) is determined solely and completely by meanings of each word or concept • But this is not true; meaning of expression may not be evident from meaning of each word/concept (obvious example: Go fly a kite)
What is structure mapping and honing? (not from study guide)
• Structure Mapping (SM): randomly search memory to find best source THEN map correspondences • Honing (H): spreading activation from multiple potentially relevant sources; map correspondences as source emerges
What is the gap? (Not from study guide)
• The gap is a question that calls out to be expressed, examined, played with, or understood—the mind replays is, considering it from different angles trying to resolve, or express it
