Public speaking Chapter 12 (Persuasion, ethos, pathos, logos)

what are questions to ask yourself when making a counterargument?

-What are the main objections to my argument or position? -How can I integrate my response into my speech? -Can I frame my position as a way to answer the counterarguments that might come up?

what does good judgement mean in ethos?

-a balanced and fair treatment of opposing points of view, -thoughtful adaptation to your listeners so you can take account of what they believe without talking down to them, and -a judicious use of evidence. -common sense

what are the types of fallacies of appeal?

-appeal to the person -inappropriate appeal to authority -appeal to consequences -appeal to people -appeal to tradition

what are the elements of ethos?

-expertise -you as a person -your motive

what are the three basic kinds of fallacies?

-fallacies of appeal -causal fallacies -inductive fallacies

what are examples of negative appeals in pathos?

-fear appeals -outrage

what are the classical dimensions of ethos?

-good good judgement -excellence -goodwill

what are the types of inductive fallacies?

-hasty generalization -the slothful induction -inappropriate sample

how can you make argument from example (inductive reasoning) work in speech?

-have more than two examples -make sure to connect statistics with examples -make sure that the claim is not stronger than the evidence can provide -have the strongest example first

what are the different ways of showing causal arguments?

-how the occur together -how they vary together -how are they connect by a describable mechanism

when does an analogy work?

-its appropriate -start with something specific your audience will find familiar

what are methods for better justifying your premises in deductive reasoning?

-logic -nature of the occasion -authority -reason from examples

what is the correct way of using negative pathos?

-not to create too much fear -give audience actions

how can you appropriately cite authority?

-stick to factual claims (not values or policy) -make sure that authority is a specialist in the topic of the claim

what are examples of positive pathos?

-sympathy -nobility -empowerment

what methods of controlling of fear?

-tone down fear -increase the perception that audience members' individual actions do make a difference

what are some tips for dealing with counterarguments?

1) reference the counterargument specifically, and define whos making it 2) give a charitable versions of the counterargument., 3) point out the merits of the counterargument and why the audience should not accept it. 4) remember the benefits of framing.

Dealing directly with counterarguments also can make your speech more persuasive. By laying out the objections to your position and countering them, you can achieve three goals that will help you persuade your audience which are?

1) respecting the audiences intelligence 2) increase credibility 3) control and fame the terms of the dicussion

what are the six common types of reasoning (arguments) that you can use to structure the arguments in your speeches?

1. arguments from examples (inductive argument), 2. formal (or deductive) arguments, 3. causal arguments, 4. arguments from analogy, 5. arguments from signs, and 6. arguments from authority.

what is argument from analogy?

A claim that a similarity exists between two objects or actions.

what is argument from authority?

A claim that a statement is true because of the expertise of its source.

what is causal argument?

A claim that one event, situation, or attribute causes another.

what is arguments from signs?

A claim that one event, situation, or attribute precedes another. (example: signs of suicide)

what is outrage appeal?

A related negative emotion is outrage, an emotional reaction to something we deeply feel is morally wrong.

what is logos?

An appeal based on reasoning.

what is ethos? what are the three elements of ethos?

An appeal based on the speaker's trustworthiness and expertise. Elements: ethical, practical, knowledgeable.

what is pathos ?

An appeal to emotions of the audience.

what is counterarguments?

An argument in opposition to your or someone else's argument.

what does framing usually imply?

And framing usually implies values, or judgments, about what's important and what actions follow from those values.

what is inductive reasoning?

Argument from form; a claim based on specific examples.

what is argument from form?

Deductive, or if-then, reasoning.

what is pattern of argument?

How are you going to support the claim that you'd like the audience to believe with reasons and evidence? (make evidence fit into the augment)

what are questions to ask when using pathos?

How do I expect the audience to feel about my arguments? What do I feel? What emotions are appropriate?

what is appeal to tradition?

It argues that because we have believed something in the past, this belief is justified.

what makes a good augments? what are the questions to ask to ensure a good augment?

Making a good argument means giving a clear statement of a position and backing up this position with reasons. An argument addresses questions such as "Why is that statement true?" "Why should we believe you?" "How do you know that?" or even "So what?"

what is the deductive reasoning structure? give an example.

Statements 1 and 2 are called the premises, and number 3 is the conclusion. If a town has 5 four-star restaurants in a town, then it is a good restaurant town. Milwaukee has 6 four-star restaurants. Therefore, Milwaukee is a good restaurant town.

what is a proof?

The three kinds of persuasive appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos.

what is persuasion?

The use of speech to influence others through reason, credibility, and identification.

What is false appeal to the person?

Using traits of a person to make a false argument

what is hasty generalization?

a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

In preparing a speech, it's helpful to think of argument as what?

a movement from reasons to claims, or conclusions. start with what the audience know, believe, or value and move to what they should believe or value

what is appeal to people?

a person appeals to the widespread belief as a reason to reject an argument (using popular belief)

what is past hoc fallacy?

after this therefore because of this.

what make citing authority effective?

aren't biased and don't have self-serving motives

what is the fallacy of circular reasoning?

basically the premise of the argument is essentially the same as one of the conclusions.

what does excellence mean in ethos?

believe that you're a virtuous person. Excellence doesn't mean that you're never wrong but, rather, that you're oriented toward your better self.

what is Circumstance appeal to a person?

circumstances that motivate people to make an argument cause them to be biased in some way, the conclusion that the person draws must be suspect.

what are the types of signs?

conventional or realistic.

how can you empower the audience?

focus on what the audience can do, such as making individual lifestyle changes or getting involved in the political process.

what does nobility mean in pathos?

frames the values that you assume that the audience already holds and then implores the members to live up to the best version of these values.

what a framing?

gives perspective to your audience members, a place from which to evaluate the information and what it means to them.

how should you use pathos?

goal should be to put your audience in a frame of mind consistent with your persuasive purpose. You're trying to evoke appropriate emotion.

what is fear appeals?

identify a threat and then let audience members know what actions will prevent them—or someone important to them—from being harmed.

how should you creating framing?

in a way that is relevant to the audience.

what is a challenge of framing?

interpretation

what is fallacies?

involves an error in the process by which someone comes to an argumentative conclusion.

what is a conventional sign? give an example

is a human-0created symbol such as the white flag or surrender or SOS as a distress signal

what is a challenge in deductive reasoning?

is to justify your premises.

what is the downside of deductive reasoning?

it can be hard for the audience to follow

what is important about using proofs?

it should use all three: ethos, pathos, and logos

what is The Fallacy of Inferring Causation from Correlation?

its basically causations does not equal correlation.

what does disagreement come from?

lack of understanding

what is reasoning?

linking a claim with some kind of support or justification for it.

what are the two types of analogies?

literal (comparison has a factual basis) and figurative (the analogy is suggestive and useful but not based on facts)

how can you integrate your self into a speech better?

look at your materials and ask yourself what you would be thinking, doubting, or wondering about if you were in the audience.

what does every speech require?

pattern of argument

what is appeal to consequences?

person argues that we can't believe a claim because the social, political or other costs of believing the claim are too high for us to bear.

what is inappropriate sample?

pick bad samples on which to base their generalizations.

what is a way of evoking sympathy?

picking a specific person or group of people affected by a problem and telling their story in a vivid way.

what is a realistic sign? give an example

reflects a relationship in the actual world. For example, dark clouds mean rain, and if the leading economic indicators are down three quarters in a row, that's a sign that a recession is likely in the next year.

what is slothful induction?

refuse to make a generalization about something supported by most of the specific facts.

how should you address with audience's doubts about your connect to the topic?

relating your personal story to the subject of the speech,

what is fallacies of causation?

rely on the logic of cause

what does goodwill mean in ethos?

shown your listeners that you have their best interests in mind.

what is argument? what is reason based on?

statements or claims that are backed up with reasons. These reasons may be based on evidence, statistics, other forms of data, logical necessity, the opinion of experts, or any other kind of rigorous proof.

what is manipulation?

using deception in your speech, making unsound arguments appear to be strong, or attempting to appear to be someone you are not.

what are the two kinds of causal claims?

weak and strong

what could influence pathos in your speech?

what you're saying about your topic and how you're saying it.

when does fallacy of appeal occur?

when an argument appeals to something that is inappropriate to proving the specific claim. (use reconvinced notions)

when is causal arguments useful?

when showing how two things are associated , showing the correlation between them

when is inductive reasoning most useful?

when you're trying to support a general claim, often as a part of a larger argument.