Public Speaking Final Study Guide

What are the benefits of visual aids?

Add interest Enhance speaker credibility Improve comprehension and retention Advance arguments

What four things should you consider when selecting an attention-getting device, as discussed in your textbook?

Appropriateness or relevance to audience Purpose of speech Topic Occasion

How is oral language different from written language?

Oral language has smaller variety of words Oral language has words with fewer syllables Oral language has shorter sentences Oral language has more self-reference words (I, me, mine) Oral language has fewer quantifying terms or precise numerical words Oral language has more pseudo quantifying terms (many, few, some) Oral language has more extreme and superlative words Oral language has more quantifying statements (clauses beginning with unless and except) Oral language has more repetition of words and syllables Oral language has more contractions Oral language has more interjections (Wow! Really? No! You're kidding!) Oral language has more colloquial and non-standard words.

9 Fallacies

a. Ad hominem Attacks the person instead of the argument Attempts to refute the claim of the opposition by bringing the opposition's character into question b. Bandwagon Tries to get everyone on board. Writers who use this approach try to convince the readers that everyone else believes something, so the reader should too. Ex: Everyone runs red lights when they are in a hurry, so there is no reason I should not do it, too. c. Either-or/False dilemma Reduces complex ideas to black and white choices. Most often issues will have a number of choices for a resolution Ex: "We can go to the beach for a week or we don't go anywhere at all" (ignores the fact that you could go for a couple of days) d. Slippery slope One step in an undesirable section leads to a series of consequences e. Invalid analogy Comparisons and metaphors attempt to relate ideas or situations that upon closer inspection aren't really that similar Ex: We know that my plan to increase recycling will work at UGA because a similar plan was implemented in New York City 10 years ago and it has produced several benefits for the city. f. False cause Assume a faulty causal relationship One event following another in time does not mean it causes the second event Ex: The only way to keep our children from becoming involved with drugs and crime is to enforce a strict curfew every night of the week. g. Non sequitur Evidence the does not connect to the claim Does not follow a logical sequence Ex: Because our school is old, it needs higher academic standards. h. Red herring When the arguer diverts the attention by changing the subject Little relevance to the argument Ex: I don't know why we are wasting time debating campaign finance reform when more and more international terrorists are focusing their attacks on the United States. i. Hasty generalization Bases an inference on too small a sample or on an unrepresentative sample An argument based on insufficient evidence Ex: Jen noticed that bus drivers tend to pull out and make left turns in front of buses heading in the opposite direction on the street. She writes a letter to the Red & Black to raise awareness of this "safety issue" and to demand that bus drivers receive more training.

According to class lecture, how does a speaker establish credibility in the introduction?

"Why did I choose this topic" and what you've done to become an expert on the topic. Why you chose the topic From Hurt: Why you care How did you become an expert on the topic

How can a speaker use language to move an audience? Be able to define and provide examples for the different types of device that produce (1) imagery and (2) rhythm.

- Vividness: description - Comparison: simile and metaphor - Sound - Personification - Rhythm: -repetition -parallel wording -antithesis -alliteration

What is the three step process for incorporating verbal citations into a speech? Be able to describe each step in detail. What information should you include about your source? (also in textbook)

1. Set up the evidence or research (this will depend on what you are citing. If you are talking about the CDC then you don't really need to say more and maybe the date but just depends) >where it is from (published and time) >date >who and what they do 2. Execution >direct observation >paraphrase 3. Analysis

What are the benefits and drawbacks for each of the major delivery styles?

-Impromptu: the presentation of a short message without advance preparation. Impromptu speeches often occur when someone is asked to "say a few words" or give a toast on a special occasion. Benefit: spontaneous and responsive in an animated group context. Drawback: the speaker is given little or no time to contemplate the central theme of his or her message. As a result, the message may be disorganized and difficult for listeners to follow. -Extemporaneous: Extemporaneous speaking is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a conversational manner using brief notes Benefit: promotes the likelihood that you, the speaker, will be perceived as knowledgeable and credible. Audience likely to pay attention to the message because it's engaging verbally and non-verbally. Drawback: requires a great deal of preparation for both the verbal and the non-verbal components of the speech. -Manuscript: word-for-word iteration of a written message. speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page except when using visual aids. Benefit: exact repetition of original words; might be necessary in something like a legal case. Drawback: Uninteresting and dull, hard to be conversational, speaker tends to look at paper instead of audience -Memory: rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory. Benefit: enables the speaker to maintain eye contact with the audience throughout the speech. Can freely move around the stage and use the hands to make gestures. Drawback: Presentation will be flat and uninteresting unless vocal cues are memorized. You might think go blank or forget where you are and have to adlib which would sound entirely different. Might sound monotone, sing-song, or "machine-gun" style where you forget your most important points.

What is the rhetorical situation? What are the components? How does it help speakers?

1. A situation in which people's understanding can be changed through messages 2. Components: Speaker Occasion Audience Speech 3. It helps the speaker to know his/her obstacles and opportunities so that they can accommodate their audience.

What are the 4 components of an introduction?

1. Capture audiences attention 2. Introduce topic and relate topic to audience 3. Establish credibility: why you chose topic? What did I do to become an expert? 4. Provide a thesis and preview of main points

Based on your textbook, what are the different options speakers have for concluding devices? (10)

1. Conclude with a challenge: a call to engage in some kind of activity that requires a contest or special effort. 2. Conclude with a quotation: reciting a quote that is relevant to the speech topic. -can persuade, inform, have a call to action, summarize thought, provoke a certain thought or feeling 3. Conclude with a summary: elongating the review of main points (should be avoided in shorter speeches) 4. Conclude by visualizing the future: helps your audience imagine the future you believe can actually occur. Usually depicts how society should be or how the listeners' lives could be different. (persuasive) 5. Conclude with an appeal for action: Speaker asks his/her audience to engage in a specific behaviour or change in thinking (most common persuasive concluding device) -can be an immediate call to action or something in the future 6. Conclude by inspiration: goal is stir someone's emotions in a specific manner 7. Conclude with advice: Speaker's opinion about what should or should not be done (primarily from speakers who are recognized as expert authorities on a given subject) 8. Conclude by proposing a solution: offers a solution to a problem that was discussed in the speech 9. Conclude with a question: rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea 10. Conclude with a reference to audience: speaker attempts to answer the basic audience question, "What's in it for me?" -gives direct benefits a behaviour or thought change has for audience members

What is the difference between a full-sentence outline and a speaking outline, according to your book?

1. Full- sentence: lays a strong foundation for your message. It will call on you to have one clear and specific purpose for your message. It helps frame a clear, concrete thesis statement. Helps you exclude irrelevant information. Helps you focus only on information that directly bears on your thesis. 2. Speaking outline will include far less detail. You will use key words +and phrases and only write down extended quotes

According to your book, why should people study persuasion?

1. The sheer number of persuasive communications has grown exponentially 2. Persuasive messages travel faster than ever before. 3. Persuasion has become institutionalized. 4. Persuasive communication has become more subtle and devious. 5. Persuasive communication is more complex than ever before.

What are the 3 components of a conclusion?

1. signal ending 2. review the main points 3. time to clap line

What common constraints do speakers face when giving and preparing for speeches? How can a speaker overcome those constraints?

2. Purpose- to inform, to persuade, to entertain 2. Audience- different audiences have different political, religious, and ideological learnings; conduct an audience analysis 3. Time Frame- focus on information that can be covered in the given time frame 4. Context- set of circumstances surrounding a speech; context helps decide topic appropriateness

What are the four key ingredients of "entertaining" speeches? What are some of the reasons why people are unprepared for these speeches?

Be Prepared Be adaptive to the occasion Be adaptive to your audiences Be Mindful of the time People see entertainment speeches as corny. Because of this, they do not prepare seriously and instead stand up to speak with the idea that they can "wing it" by acting silly and telling a few jokes. This makes the speech fall flat.

What is a claim? What determines the strength of a claim?

Claim: a statement that is supported by evidence The strength is determined by evidence

What are common errors people make when giving commemorative speeches? What can they do to avoid making these errors? Just think about what you would do to avoid doing those things (from hurt)

Common pitfalls: Inappropriate use of emotion Inappropriate use of humor Lack of supporting material Lack of detail in supporting material Trite examples- giving specific examples would be a way to fix them Fuzzy link between virtue and supporting material

When a speech is delivered well, what traits does it usually have?

Conversational Style: Eye Contact Vocalics Volume Rate Pitch Pauses Vocal Variety Pronunciation Effective physical manipulation Posture Effective Body Movement Verbal Practice Note cards

According to your book, why is it important to establish a relationship with your audience in the introduction?

During an introduction, speakers attempt to impart the general and specific purpose of a speech while making their audience members interested in the speech topic, establishing their own credibility, and providing the audience with a preview of the speech structure. If you do not get the audience's attention at the outset, it will only become more difficult to do so as you continue speaking.

What is the basic function of an epideictic speech? What is the main purpose of a commemorative speech?

Epideictic speech: build or reaffirm a sense of community by: Strengthening bonds between speaker and listener Strengthening bond among listeners Depends on the speaker's ability to craft words and images that capture the occasion- move the audience. Commemorative speech: tribute speech/praise Fundamental purpose: to inspire your audience by highlighting their appreciation of your subject Organized around the subject's virtues Specific incidents, examples, stories, support the virtues Focus on the subject

What are ethos, pathos, and logos? How can a speaker incorporate each into his or her speech?

Ethos: union of competence and character Enhance your credibility Explain your competence Establish common ground Deliver speech fluently and with conviction Pathos: emotional language Vivid examples Speak with sincerity and conviction Ethics Logos: logical appeal of the speech. Does the speech make sense? Does the evidence add up?

What is inclusive language? Why is this concept important for public speakers?

Language that avoids placing any one group of people above or below other groups while speaking: This concept is important because there are many common problem areas related to language such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and disabilities.

What are the different types of supporting material? (6 types:pestcdd) How should they be used? How might you test the strength of the material?

Personal experience Is it reliable? Generalizable? Able to be interpreted the same way by all? Common knowledge Is it shared by the audience? Is it correct? Direct observation Are you sure of what you saw? Are you biased? Examples Are they representative? Do you have enough of them? Documents Are they trustworthy? Did you properly interpret them? Is the context made clear? Statistics Do they come from a reliable source? Are they representative? Were the measures used correctly? Testimony Does the source have access to data? Are they an expert on the subject? Are they reasonably objective? HOW SHOULD THEY BE USED: You should use a variety of supporting materials and not rely on one type to satisfy all your claims.

What tips might you give a speaker about using notes in a speech?

Plan on using just five cards, written on one side only. Get 4 × 6 cards. Use one card for the introduction one card for each of your three main points one card for the conclusion. number the cards do not write full speech; use key words to trigger memory

What is reasoning? Be able to list the different types and provide examples.

Reasoning is what links your support/evidence to your claim. It's an inference. 4 types of reasoning (c.a.i.d) induction/examples Specific example is typical of the general The example should be representative and unbiased Ex: lets say the claim is public speaking is easy. So specific instances to prove that claim would be i put in minimal effort and did well on speeches, the quizzes were easy, and i got all the participation points deduction/principle What is true in general is true to the specific "When something is broken, you fix it" Analogy If two things are alike in most respects, they will be alike in this respect cause/effect

What is communication apprehension? What are the myths about this condition? Which myths are true?

The broad term that refers to an individual's fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. At its heart, communication apprehension is a psychological response to evaluation. Myths include: (8) People who suffer from speaking anxiety are neurotic. Telling a joke or two is always a good way to begin a speech. Imagine the audience is naked. Any mistake means that you have "blown it." Avoid speaking anxiety by writing out your speech word for word and memorizing it. Audiences are out to get you. You will look to the audience as nervous as you feel. A little nervousness helps you give a better speech. (TRUE)

According to your book, why do speakers create outlines for speeches?

The outline helps maintain the speech's focus on the thesis by allowing the speaker to test the scope of content, assess logical relationships between ideas, and evaluate the relevance of supporting ideas.

What is ethos? How does a speaker develop it? Why does it matter in terms of audience analysis?

The perception that the speaker is honest, knowledgeable, and rightly motivated Composed of competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill It is created in the moment It matters in terms of audience analysis because if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter. Therefore, you need to understand the concept of credibility as a perception of receivers and formulate your information accordingly.

How does a speaker determine their main points?

The speaker needs to first determine the general purpose of the speech, such as to inform or to persuade. From there, the speaker can then determine the specific purpose of the speech. Once that is determined, the speaker can form the main points to help accomplish the specific purpose of his/her speech.

According to your book, how can you avoid offending your audience with your language?

There are 4 categories that you should use to determine whether your language is appropriate enough: Speaker: Does the language reflect you as a speaker? Ex. trying to sound like you have a PhD when you are only a Freshman in college does NOT reflect your language as a speaker Audience: Is your language appropriate for the audience you are speaking to? Ex. Using Engineering terms when talking to an English major group does not reflect your language choice for the audience Context: Is your language appropriate for the setting and occasion of the speech? Ex. Speaking at a high school assembly vs. speaking in front of business professionals. Topic: (kinda vague) Is your language appropriate for the topic? Ex. "if your speech topic is the dual resonance model of string theory, it makes sense to expect that you will use more sophisticated language than if your topic was a basic introduction to the physics of, say, sound or light waves." -From the book

Why should a speaker use a visual as an aid in their speech?

They add variety and strength Can provide emotion Primary purpose: clarify speech 4 reasons why we use presentation aids: Increase audience understanding Help audience retain and recall message after the fact Make speech more interesting More polished speech, increases speaker's credibility

According to your book, why do conclusions matter?

They matter because it is the last chance to drive home your ideas.

How can a public speaker reduce his or her communication apprehension before and while delivering their speech?

Think positively Reducing anxiety through preparation Analyze your audience Clearly organize your ideas Adapt your language to the oral mode Practice in conditions similar to those you will face when speaking Watch what you eat

Why are transitions necessary in a speech?

Transitions are necessary because they summarize what was said in one point and preview what will be discussed in the next point, which helps audiences follow along with your speech.

What mistakes do speakers tend to make using visuals and how can they avoid making these mistakes when using PowerPoint?

Visual pitfalls: Unnecessary Too small Too little explanation Not professionally created Distracting design Too many words Left up too long or passed around Guidelines for powerpoint: Only use when absolutely necessary Clearly and concisely explain the visual Use designs to engage not distract Place blank slides between slides Give credit to sources practice - talk to your audience not your visual aid

How can a speaker use vivid language? Be able to define and provide examples for the different types of device that produce imagery (vividness) and rhythm.

Vivid language helps your listeners create strong, distinct, clear, and memorable mental images. Two ways to use this are through imagery and rhythm. Imagery is the use of language to represent objects, actions, or ideas. The goal is to help an audience member create a mental picture of what the speaker is saying. Three common tools of imagery are concreteness, simile, and metaphor. Concreteness: the goal is to help you, as a speaker, show your audience something instead of just telling them. To attempt to help our audience see specific realities or actual instances instead of abstract theories and ideas. Simile: a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared. All similes contain "like" or "as." these are used to help audience understand a specific characteristic being described within a speech Metaphor: a figure of speech where a term or phrase is applied to something in a non literal way to suggest resemblance. Rhythm: refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech. There are 4 types: parallelism, repetition, alliteration, assonance. Parallelism: ideas presented in a grammatically parallel fashion Ex: give me liberty or give me death The parallel structure comes from "give me" Repetition: linguistic device designed to help audience become familiar with a short piece of the speech as they hear it over and over again. Ex: "I have a dream" speech Repetition comes from "I have a dream" being repeated 8 times in a row. Alliteration: repeating two or more words in a series that begin with the same consonant. There are two types: Non Immediate juxtaposition: occurs when the consonants are repeated in non adjacent words Ex: "It is the poison that we must purge `from our politics, the wall that we must tear down before the hour grows too late") Immediate juxtaposition: occurs when the consonants clearly follow one after the other Ex: Let it be our cause to give that child a happy home Assonance: repeating the same vowel sounds with different consonants in the stressed syllables. Ex: mad as a hatter

What is the difference between a voluntary audience and a captive audience?

Voluntary: an audience that gathers because they want to hear a speech, attend the event, or participate in an event. Captive: an audience that is required to be present or feels obligated to do so (Both audiences affect your language choice and how much or how little they may be willing to pay attention and give feedback on your speech.)

How should a speaker practice effectively for their upcoming speech?

When you practice your speech, place both your feet in full, firm contact with the floor to keep your body from swaying side to side. Seek input from others Use Audio and/or video to record yourself Practice out loud in front of other people several times, spreading your rehearsals out over several days. Time yourself

List and provide examples of the different techniques for helping your audience through your speech

a. Internal preview: a phrase or sentence that gives an audience an idea of what is to come within a section of a speech. The speaker highlights what he or she is going to discuss within a specific main point during a speech. EX: "To help us further understand why recycling is important, we will first explain the positive benefits of recycling and then explore how recycling can help our community" b. Internal summary: delivered to remind an audience of what they just heard within the speech. These are best used when the information within a specific main point of a speech was complicated. EX: "To sum up, school bullying is a definite problem. Bullying in schools has been shown to be detrimental to the victim's grades, the victim's scores on standardized tests, and the victim's future educational outlook." c. Signpost: a guide a speaker gives her or his audience to help the audience keep up with the content of the speech. In essence, we use these short phrases at the beginning of a piece of information to help our audience members keep up with what we're discussing. Signposts can also be used to highlight a specific information the speaker thinks is important. EX: "The first function of credibility is competence." "The second function of credibility is trustworthiness." "The third function of credibility is caring/goodwill."