public speaking test 2

Strategies for preparing a conclusion

1. Be sure that it is truly the conclusion 2. return to your introductory device when possible 3. practice the conclusion

Problem-solution speech structure

1. Describe the situation 2. Evaluate the situation as a problem 3. propose a solution 4. Argue for a solution

Type of Introductions

1. Identifying with your audience- sharing a common experience between you and the audience. 2. Referring to the speech situation - refer directly to the situation 3. Stating your purpose -is effective when your thesis is startling or unexpected. Very helpful if your audience is captive or favorably disposed to your ideas. 4. Stating the importance of your topic - alerting the audience to the significance of your topic. It demands the audience's attention. Has an element of mystery. This approach has been over used, can make the audience be skeptical. 5. Citing Statistics, Making Claims - Works best when the statistics are accurate but not well known. Can show our common assumptions are not accurate. Risk is the listeners may become defensive about their predispositions. 6. Telling a story - the story is engaging to the audience. Narrative is concrete. Listeners can attend to it with less effort. 7. Asking a rhetorical question - cause the audience to think about the answer. Speakers have overused or misused this device. A risk involves the listeners to answer the question different than what the speaker wants or being silent when asked to answer out loud. 8. Quoting Someone - the quote captures the essential idea they intend to develop. Must have connection with topic. 9. Analogy - draws attention to similarities or differences between two things. Help make abstract concepts concrete. They are persuasive. Should be simple and direct. 10. Using Humor - when it works, it relaxes the audience. Listeners view the speaker as favorable. Humor is not always appropriate.

Elements of effective transitions

1. Internal summaries 2. Links 3. Internal Previews 4. Complete transitions - includes an internal summary of the point being concluded, a link to connect the next point, and an internal preview

Strategies for preparing introductions

1. Prepare the speech first 2. Relate the introduction to the body 3. keep the introduction brief 4. make the introduction complete 5. keep a file of potential introductions 6. Be guided by examples in this book(public speaking book)

Information Goals

1. Providing new information or perspective -to enrich the audience's common knowledge, to update or revise them. 2. Agenda setting - creates awareness of a subject that listeners do not know about. Warrant's people's attention. 3. Creating Positive or Negative Feeling - enables people to perform competently and make intelligent choices.

Constraints on persuasive speaking

1. Selective listening - goes beyond selective exposure. If speech is vague or unclear, listeners will "clarify" it by interpreting it in a way that supports what they already believe. Begin speech with areas of agreement and slowly move to areas of differences. 2. Selective perception - Denial- refusal to accept the claim in a message no matter how strong its justification is. Dismissal- degrading a message because it disputes that is applies to. Belittling the source - attacking the credibility of the source. Compartmentalization- keeping two conflicting beliefs separated so that one need not be conscious of the conflict between them. 3. selective influence - two conditions: polysemic - capable of being understood in more than one way. The message interacts with listeners' prior experiences differently rather than the audience member's distorting the message. AND boomerang effect - the opposite effect from that which a speaker intends. Happens if an appeal is so powerful it overwhelms the audience.

Three goals of conclusions

1. Signaling that the end is coming 2. Summarizing the main ideas 3. Making a final appeal to the audience

Strategic resources for a purpose

1. Strengthening Commitment - by consciousness raising- making people aware of values and commitments that they previously took for granted. 2. Weakening Commitment - by finding a critical distinction-- serves to deflect the audience's commitment and by refutation-an attack or defense of a challenged statement or claim. Also by rebuilding arguments- showing how it is flawed 3. Conversion- by chipping away at the edges of beliefs, identify a pattern of anomalies- (puzzling situations), reluctant testimonies- statements that are not in the speaker's self interest and through biased evidence. 4. Inducing a specific action - by identifying the desired action precisely, and make the action as easy to perform as possible

Four Types of persuasive goals

1. Strengthening commitment 2. Weakening commitment 3. Conversion 4. Inducing a specific action

Types of Conclusions

1. Summarizing - reminds the audience not only about the major topics but the also the details, even repeating memorable phrases. 2. Quoting Someone - quote must be clearly related to the topic. It can also go beyond your central idea and give the audience something to think about. Risking of confusing people is much lower at the conclusion. 3. Making a personal reference - illustrates your personal identification with the topic, encourages the audience to identify with you, listeners might have the same feelings as you. 4. Challenging the Audience - creates a common bond between the speaker and audience and transfers some responsibility to the audience for achieving the speaker's goals. 5. Offering a utopian vision - related to challenging the audience, offers an idealized, positive vision. Emphasizes the results. Effective when the speaker calls on the audience to make sacrifices or take risks to achieve a distant goal.

Four goals of an introduction

1. To gain the attention and interest of your audience. 2. To influence the audience to view you and your topic favorably. 3. To clarify the purpose or thesis of your speech. 4. To preview the development of your topic.

3 benefits of organization

1. an idea or example that is not connected to anything else is easy to forget 2. the mental energy that listeners use in reconstructing a confused or disorganized speech is not available for absorbing and reflecting on its main points 3.even critical listeners may resent this additional work of listening to a disorganized speech and may express their resentment by resisting the message

tests of inference

1. does the claim follow the supporting material 2. does the claim advance our understanding beyond the supporting material 3. is the claim relevant to the situation 4. is the language clear and unequivocal 5. has probability been clearly distinguished from certainty 6. is the speakers emotional response appropriate to the situation

The role of audience and motivation

Determine the target audience, the key decision makers might help influence others. Motivation is the incentive to do something that requires effort. Motive is the basis for persuasive speeches.

Elaboration likelihood model

Refers to listeners' tendency to think about information related to the topic of the speech. It varies among people. High elaboration=a person will be persuaded by systematic thinking. Result of critical thinking. Low elaboration= a person will be persuaded by "short cuts" that simplify thinking.

analogy

a comparison of people, places, things, events, or more abstract relationships

The Forgetting Curve

a curve that displays the rate at which something learned is forgotten over time.

cause

a pattern of inference that suggests one factor brings about another

the motivated sequence

a persuasive message that is organized in terms of steps in the audience's motivation rather than in terms of the specific subject. -Attention step - Need step - Satisfaction step - Visualization step -Action step

patterns for arranging main ideas

chronological(time), spatial(place or position), categorical (topical), cause-effect, problem solution, compare and contrast, and residues(by process of elimination)

components of proof

claim, supporting material, reasoning

selecting supporting material

does the supporting material meet tests of strength for its type, will the supporting material be easily understood, is the supporting material vivid and interesting, is the supporting material consistent with other thing you know, will the supporting material be efficient to present, can the supporting material be easily cited

arranging the main ideas

factors affecting arrangement: are the main ideas dependent, are some main ideas relatively unfamiliar, should the strongest ideas come first or last

identifying main ideas

from your thesis or specific purpose or from patterns in your research

evaluating research

making sure everything is credible finding potential deficiencies in evidence, the quality of internet evidence

sources of research material

periodicals, newspapers, books, reference works, government publications, material online, and interviews

types of supporting material

personal experience common knowledge direct observation examples: brief example, hypothetical example, case study, or ancedote documents statistics: simple enumeration, surveys and polls, cates of change, or experiments testimony: factual testimony, opinion testimony

rhetorical proof

proof established through interaction between the speaker and the listeners; provides support for a conclusion but not assurance that it is true.

research vs. analysis

research: the process of looking for and discovering supporting materials for the speech analysis: exploration of a speech topic to determine which subordinate topics must be covered

tools of research material

search engines, electronic databases, catalogs, indexes: newspaper, periodical, government publications

characteristics of main ideas

simplicity, discreteness, parallel structure, balance, coherence, and completeness

sign

something that stands for something else

examples

specific instances that are used to illustrate a more general claim, the inference is that the specific is typical of the general

purpose and thesis statement

statement of the particular outcome sought from the audience; a more specific version of a general purpose. what you want the audience to take away from the speech thesis: the central idea or claim made by the speech, usually stated in a single sentence. what you want to put into the speech

purpose of the speech

the outcome the speaker wishes to achieve; the response desired from the audience

selecting main ideas

use between 2 and 5 main ideas, is the idea essential and can several ideas be combined

good topics

what ever is pertinent and appropriate to the situation. a topic that matters to you, interest of the audience, worthy of listeners time, appropriateness of scope, appropriateness for oral delivery, appropriateness to the rhetorical situation, clarity

narrative

when a speaker tells a story

testimony

when you rely on other people for the accuracy of supporting materials, their testimony stands in for your own direct encounter with the materials includes expert testimony, lay testimony, and quoted testimony.