PY 102 Exam 1
How many variables should frequency distributions show?
1 X axis indicates the characteristic being measured: (ex: hair color) Y axis indicates the frequency having the characteristic (ex: number of people)
For research to be called an experiment what is necessary?
1. Control over the independent variables 2. Control over individual differences *Between-subject design: Random assignment of participants to different levels of the study *Within-subject design: All participants take part in all levels of the experiment
What are the objectives of human factors/effectiveness?
1. Functional effectiveness: Enhance human effectiveness and efficiency with which work and other activities are carried out 2. Improve human welfare:Enhance desirable human values *safety, job satisfaction, comfort, ease of use, quality of life
What is the confidence level in psychology?
95% confidence
Describe negatively skewed
A distribution is negatively skewed, or skewed to the left, if the scores fall toward the higher side of the scale and there are very few low scores
Longitudinal research
A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time
Where do we apply human factors knowledge?
Academia - conduct research, teach Government - conduct research, heavy military and transportation emphases Industry - product design (employers usually very interested in research talent) Consulting - advise on product design, product testing & evaluation, expert witnessing
What is inverted U-shaped curve?
Amount of physiological arousal and performance on a task (when arousal reaches a certain point, performance will decrease)
Yerkes
Army Alpha and Beta tests; catalog of occupational needs, job descriptions, performance ratings
What is negative correlation?
As one increases the other decreases
What do human factors consider and measure?
Attention, decision-making, cognitive and physical task analysis
What is the Halo Effect
Attractiveness stereotyping; attractive people more likely to get jobs and are perceived as smarter
What is the research hypothesis?
Can be tested; Ex: test anxiety reduces test performance
What is confounding variable?
Confounding variables (aka third variables) are variables that the researcher failed to control, or eliminate, damaging the internal validity of an experiment
Cattel
Consulting company
What is the contact hypothesis and what is it most commonly used in?
Contact hypothesis refers to the belief that prejudices can be lessened or eliminated by direct contact between groups; diversity training
What is deductive reasoning?
Deductive Reasoning is a decision-making process where choices are made based upon the results of previous choices and a critical observation of the results, This method is used heavily in scientific experimentation, but is also used informally in everyday life. For a simple example, if a person touches a hot stove burner and burns him/her self. They will learn from this experience and, next time confronted with a hot stove, likely choose not to touch the the burner knowing that they will probably get burned,
What is job analysis?
Describing job tasks accurately and in detail
What does correlation do? What can it not equal?
Determines the relationship between variables; cannot equal causation
Describe how industrial psychologists measure job performance
Establish performance criteria, benchmarks of "good" performance Theoretical criteria: ideal behaviors Subjective measures: supervisor ratings Actual criteria: measured behaviors Objective measures: # widgets produced, sales ($)
What is random assignment?
Everyone in the sample has an equal chance of being in any condition Necessary for a true experiment Best control over variables; internal validity
What is U-shaped curve?
Ex: sound-wave frequency and mistakes in detecting sound
What are the historical markers for human factors
Field observations and interviews Videotape or audiotape Questionnaires Focus groups Task/job analysis Analysis of experienced users
What are the human factors research methods?
Field observations and interviews Videotape or audiotape Questionnaires Focus groups Task/job analysis Analysis of experienced users
Mayo
GE Hawthorne studies
Describe Archival research
Gain information from past data sets; large sample but data may not match the hypothesis, less bias, less time and $
What is the theoretical hypothesis?
Generic relation; Ex: stress reduced performance
Describe surveys
Have lots of questions by lots of people; not always accurate; social desirability is bad
Describe naturalistic observation
High generalization; can have observer bias and inter-rater reliability or the rate of agreement between observers
What does organizational-industrial psychology study?
How behavior and psychology influence work and are influenced by work
What is industrial-organizational psychology?
How behavior and psychology influence work and are influenced by work
Define assignment
How selected/sampled participants get into different conditions
When designing for humans what needs to be considered as early as possible?
Humans
What is illusory correlation?
Illusory correlation is the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists.
What is positive correlation?
Increase or decrease in the same direction
Whats inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning is a style of reasoning in which decisions are made and conclusions are reached by a process of analyzing available evidence and past experiences. For example: a child learns that if they touch something hot and get burned, they reason that touching hot things is not a good idea and learn not to do that again, or that if they do something that pleases an adult and get a reward, that this is a behavior to repeat; makes broad generalizations
Industrial psychology vs organizational
Industrial: job requirements, selection, training Organizational: relationships between employees, job satisfaction, leadership, harassment
What do human factors look at?
Interaction between people and tools, machines, and environment
What is not a reason that mentoring is particularly important to the career success of women
It helps women overcome discrimination in job promotions
What is not a characteristic of a good hypothesis
It is falsifiable
What does industrial psychology study?
Job requirements, selection, training
In job specification, what does the acronym KSAO stand for
Knowledge, skills, abilities, other characteristics
Lewin
Leadership, team structure, dynamics
What is internal validity?
Less chance for confounding variables
Describe how organizational psychologists determine job satisfaction
Likert scale survey with lots of data
What are potential problems with subjective measures?
Memory biases (primacy, recency) Halo effect Leniency error Lack of adequate information To overcome, use behavior-focused rating forms; respond to critical incidents
What is wonderlic IQ tests?
Multiple choice IQ test
In order for it for it to be a line graph what must be true?
Must have an in-between state, must have equal amounts of measurement, and must have a quantity not a quality
Describe the scales of measurement
Nominal: hardly measurement; refers to quality over quantity Ordinal: refers to order in measurement like 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Interval: it has an order and an equal distance between each measurement Ratio: it has an absolute 0
Systematic research
Objective understanding of people and the world
Positively skewed
Opposite of negatively skewed
Sexual harassment in a work place is dealt with by what psychologists?
Organizational psychologists -has quid pro quo or this for that, withholding of rewards, has a hostile environment
How do industrial psychologists train employees?
Orientation to organization, new duties, tools
Define Quasi experiment
Participants already in "conditions:" Gender, age, college major; there is no random assignment
___ enforces quality control what is published; increases confidence in results
Peer review
What do we apply when designing for human use?
Perception, memory, attention, decision making, learning/training, social psychology, anthropometry, biomechanics and human performance
What do occupational health psychologists look at?
Physical Conditions Identify safety issues & create procedures to reduce danger Work Schedules: shift work and long shifts Repetitive strain injuries
What are some qualities that enhance stress in the work environment?
Poor performance and health, Downsizing: I/O helps support those who left and those who stay Mergers, Work-family balance: women more stress Flextime, telecommuting, day care Telecommuting may actually increase stress
Organizational psychologists train team members on diversity. When is it better to do short term and when is it better to do long term?
Problem resolution (task force), creative, tactical, virtual
What are the organizational work team types?
Problem resolution (task force), creative, tactical, virtual
What are the goals in IO psychology research and how do psychologists accomplish these?
Promote effective job performance -Training in task -Training in interpersonal skills -Motivation Improve health of employees -Stress reduction workshops -Ergonomics of workplace -Safety of workplace
How are employee attributes measured?
Psychological Tests: should be standardized, reliable, and valid Assessment Centers: battery of tests, tasks, exercises (e.g., role playing) For White collar jobs: Wonderlic IQ test is predictive
What are the 3 types of sampling?
Random: Everyone has equal chance of being selected Representative: Particular characteristics chosen in proportion to the population Accidental or convenience: Whoever is available; most typical
What are the 3 quality controls in measurement?
Reliability, validity, and standardization: all participants are measured in the same way
Taylor
Scientific Principle Management; implemented rest breaks, assumed workers lazy
What is a theory?
Set of hypothesized relations between several variables about a topic
Describe what industrial psychologists learned about mentoring
Small impact on performance Important for women: Networking overcomes discrimination in promotions Greatest impact on compensation: Having a male mentor Mentors most likely to be same sex
Hypothesis have an assumed phrase. What is it?
Statistically significant
What did Clifton come up with?
Strengths-Based Leadership Theory (also known as Strengths-Based Organizational Management or SBOM) is a method of maximizing the efficiency, productivity, and success of an organization by focusing on and continuously developing the strengths of organizational resources, such as computer systems, tools, and people
If Halima is weak in delivering the opening address, but focuses on what she is good at and delegate the opening address to her subordinate who is good at it, Halima is practicing
Strengths-based management
Research is based on
Tangible and reliable evidence
Describe industrial psychology selection
Task oriented -Job analysis: what type of tasks do they have to do (mental or physical) Worker oriented or KSAOs -Do you have knowledge? Do you work well under stress? Testing -Can test, but have to decide a good enough score Interviews Cues to conscientiousness, openness, extraversion Influences: smiling, eye contact, self-promotion (can cause issues based on where location is)
What is the civil rights act of 1964?
The Act outlawed discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, required equal access to public places and employment, and enforced desegregation of schools and the right to vote.
What are BFOQ?
The definition of BFOQ is as an abbreviation for bona fide occupational qualification, a legal term for the qualification that an employer can require when hiring an employee based on a specific need in a job
Name a bias in hiring. What is this?
The halo effect is when a general impression of a person influences others' perceptions of their character
What does significance refer to?
The reliability of the results
What can the hypothesis be derived from?
The theory
What did Douglas McGregor come up with?
Theory X suggests that people work for extrinsic reasons -- in other words, money! This theory is linked to management and leadership, and assumes that workers are lazy, selfish, and generally sloppy at their work. As a result, managers with this approach believe their employees must be given really simplistic tasks, little independence or freedom, and tasks that do not involve much creativity. Theory Y suggests that people are motivated for intrinsic reasons as opposed to extrinsic reasons. What this means is that they are working for reasons that go well beyond money and include reasons such as feeling satisfied with themsleves, increasing self esteem, helping others, etc. This is really an approach toward management and leadership. A manager that takes a Theory Y approach gives workers more freedom so that they can be independent, strive for success, and be more creative.
What was determined about cash collected and satisfaction with job?
Theres only a small correlation
Describe experiments
They operationalize or very specifically define the hypothesis. Requires 2 conditions: Control --> Variable has a value of (placebo) Comparison --> Variable both has value (different amount of steps) Reduces bias
describe autocratic and democratic leadership
Transactional leaders focuses on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. They are concerned about the status quo and day-to-day progress toward goals. Transformational leaders work to enhance the motivation and engagement of followers by directing their behavior toward a shared vision; Autocratic Leadership - someone who likes to centralise and control. They derive their power from their position of authority and control. Democratic Leadership - someone who delegates authority, encourages participation and empowers employees.
Describe case study
Very few people being studied, lots of data gained, low generalizability
Which gender is typically more stressed?
Women
What has research found to be primary difference between male and female leadership style
Women tend to practice an interpersonal style and men practice a task-oriented style
What are the most predictive factors for high job satisfaction?
Work content = variety, difficulty, role clarity
What exemplifies a worker-oriented approach to job description or selection
Works well under pressure and in group situations
What does the X and Y axis indicate for the relations between 2 or more variables
X-axis is the independent variable; Y-axis is the dependent variable
How should x and y axis be ordered?
X-axis: should be ordered lower to higher Y-axis: info is always a number and will therefore, always be ordered lower to higher
What is no discernible pattern?
Your mood and the temperature at the north pole
In an experiment _____ is necessary
a comparison group
Team identification refers to
a team member adopting goal and values of the team
"Human Factors" refer to
aspects of humans that should be taken into consideration when designing products
When graphing a qualitative variable, you would use a
bar graph
Which activity is a human factors psychologist working in product design least likely to engage in
conducting intelligence tests on users to find out whether a product will be too difficult to use
Body of research increases
consensus, confidence, and can be replicated
The ____ group does not get the experimental treatment
control
Which of the following is not a usability goal
cost of the product
Cross-sectional research
cross-sectional study (also known as a cross-sectional analysis, transversal study, prevalence study) is a type of observational study that analyzes data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time—that is, cross-sectional data.
What is human factors?
design tools and workspaces for human use; safety of the workplace
Shared mental models do what
enhance coordination, cooperation, and adaptability
Which of the following research designs will allow cause-and-effect conclusions
experimental
What is the Hawthorne effect
improved employee productivity because employees are being watched
The ____ is controlled by the experimenter
independent variable
The number of days between quizzes in a biology class would be measured on a ___ scale of measurement
interval
A sample that ______ is most likely to yield generalizable results
large and randomly selected
In a "normal" distribution, the mean is equal to the
mode
On a quiz, where almost everyone gets high scores, the distribution is said to be
negatively skewed
What psychometric property is not essential for tests that are used for employee selection or performance assessment
objective
In a frequency distribution, the pattern of ___ can be shown
one variable
If job satisfaction is measured on a likert scale, which scale of measurement is this?
ordinal
What are the gestalt principles of visual perception
proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and connectedness
To control for individual differences in experiments, the researcher can use ____ or ______
random assignment, within groups design
What is ascending linear?
reflects + correlation Ex: The quality of studying and the grade received
What is descending linear?
reflects - correlationEEx: number of cigarettes smokes and life span
What does organizational psychology study?
relationships between employees, job satisfaction, leadership, management, harassment
To maximize the chances that research groups are a good match to the population of interest, researchers should conduct _____ or ____ sampling
representative, random
The most important thing for team members to do when the team first forms is
set goals that are challenging, but attainable
Hypotheses are tested using ___
significance
What are some issues or challenges work teams face?
social loafing, groupthink, communication, conflict
Webber's law states that
the smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy is a constant fraction of the stimulus (k)
Team efficacy refers to
the teams perception about how successful they will be
Gilbreth
time and motion studies, fatigue
Lucida is optimistic about goal achievement, and she encourages her team to think critically and solve problems. She is also considerate of their needs. What type of leader is Lucia?
transformational
