Quiz 11, 12, 13

__________ occurs when retailers set an artificially high​ "regular price" and then advertise a​ "sale price" which is actually close to their everyday price. A. Retail price maintenance B. Price discrimination C. Deceptive pricing D. Price fixing E. Predatory pricing

C. Deceptive pricing

Which of the following is a concern when using​ optional-product pricing? A. How to determine the price steps between different products in a product line B. Whether to set a fixed fee or a variable usage rate C. Which products to include in the base price and which to offer as options D. Which products should be bundled at a lower price E. How to price products that must be used with the main product

C. Which products to include in the base price and which to offer as options

Companies now use​ __________ and supply chain management software to help​ recruit, train,​ organize, manage,​ motivate, and evaluate channel partners. A. logistics B. distribution centers C. customer relationship management D. partner relationship management E. channel management

D. partner relationship management

Omni-channel retailers are those who​ ________. A. use mobile apps to sell their products B. expand their businesses internationally C. sell products through​ third-party retailers D. successfully merge the virtual and physical worlds E. conduct all business activities online

D. successfully merge the virtual and physical worlds

When setting channel​ objectives, companies should state the objectives in terms of​ __________. A. ​competitor's objectives B. expected profitability C. exclusive distribution arrangements D. targeted levels of customer service E. the length of the channel

D. targeted levels of customer service

Which of the following are the largest group of​ wholesalers, accounting for roughly 50 percent of all​ wholesaling? A. ​Manufacturers' representatives B. Brokers C. Agents D. ​Manufacturers' agents E. Merchant wholesalers

E. Merchant wholesalers

Which of the following statements regarding marketing channel design is​ correct? A. Channel alternatives should be evaluated against​ economic, control, and adaptability criteria. B. Channel objectives should be set in terms of profitability. C. Marketers should always maximize the number of intermediaries used in a channel. D. It is important to let the responsibilities of channel members evolve as their relationship develops. E. In global​ markets, channel systems are the same in different countries.

A. Channel alternatives should be evaluated against​ economic, control, and adaptability criteria.

Which of the following statements regarding international distribution channels is​ correct? A. Chinese consumers want to get a detailed understanding of a product before they buy it. B. Rural China now has a​ centralized, adequate distribution system. C. Global marketers find that it is unnecessary to adapt their channel strategies in different countries. D. Western markets rely primarily on​ in-store promoters to push new products. E. Distribution systems do not vary widely from country to country.

A. Chinese consumers want to get a detailed understanding of a product before they buy it.

In​ 2001, Apple opened its first Apple stores in the United States. These stores were owned and operated by Apple. This is an example of which type of vertical marketing system​ (VMS)? A. Corporate B. Conventional C. Administered D. Franchise E. Contractual

A. Corporate

Which of the following statements regarding segmented pricing is​ correct? A. Segmented pricing practices can cause consumer resentment. B. Different locations are not used as a basis for segmented pricing. C. Perceived value does not have to be considered when using segmented pricing. D. Segmented pricing is not used to price different versions of a product. E. For segmented pricing to be​ effective, the segments should have the same degree of demand.

A. Segmented pricing practices can cause consumer resentment.

Walmart, Target,​ Macy's, and other major retailers offer handy​ ________ that pull customers to both their websites and stores. A. mobile apps B. product information C. ​in-store shopping D. platforms E. channels

A. mobile apps

Retailers need to differentiate and position their store and make decisions regarding their retail marketing mix. Before making those​ decisions, retailers must first​ __________. A. segment and define their target market B. develop a website C. decide on the store atmosphere D. choose a location E. hire knowledgeable staff

A. segment and define their target market

After the company has defined its channel​ objectives, it should next identify its major channel alternatives in terms of the types of​ intermediaries, the number of​ intermediaries, and​ __________. A. the responsibilities of channel members B. whether to use intensive or exclusive distribution C. consumer needs D. the length of the channel E. economic criteria

A. the responsibilities of channel members

One major objective of a​ market-penetration pricing strategy is to​ __________. A. win a large market share B. prevent customer dissatisfaction C. skim off small but profitable segments D. set a high price to gain profits E. attract buyers willing to pay a higher price

A. win a large market share

What are the three main types of​ off-price retailers? A. ​Independents, factory​ outlets, and warehouse clubs B. ​Franchises, factory​ outlets, and warehouse clubs C. Discount​ stores, factory​ outlets, and warehouse clubs D. Discount​ stores, factory​ outlets, and convenience stores E. Discount​ stores, convenience​ stores, and supermarkets

A. ​Independents, factory​ outlets, and warehouse clubs

A company has set a low price on a new product it introduced. They want to maximize their market share and attract a large number of buyers quickly. Which new product pricing strategy should the company​ use? A. ​Market-penetration pricing B. Optional product pricing C. ​Market-skimming pricing D. Psychological pricing E. ​Captive-product pricing

A. ​Market-penetration pricing

What are the four major functions of​ logistics? A. ​Warehousing, inventory​ management, transportation, and logistics information​ management B. ​Retailing, inventory​ management, transportation, and logistics information​ management C. ​Warehousing, inventory​ management, transportation, and​ retailing D. ​Warehousing, inventory​ management, retailing, and logistics information management E. Inventory​ management, transportation,​ shipping, and warehousing

A. ​Warehousing, inventory​ management, transportation, and logistics information​ management

Foot Locker has mastered online and mobile efforts that link seamlessly with store​ operations, offering options such as​ "buy online, ship from​ store" and​ "buy online, reserve in​ store" for pickup. This is an example of​ ________. A. ​omni-channel retailing B. social media C. ​in-store ordering with a mobile device D. digital retailing E. ​web-based retailing

A. ​omni-channel retailing

Retailing today requires​ __________, which means creating a seamless​ cross-channel buying experience that integrates​ in-store, online, and mobile shopping. A. ​omni-channel retailing B. ​full-service retailing C. wholesaling D. flash sales E. showrooming

A. ​omni-channel retailing

Using​ __________, the customer shares​ real-time data on sales and current inventory levels with the supplier. The supplier then takes full responsibility for managing inventories and deliveries. A. ​vendor-managed inventory B. ​just-in-time logistics systems C. piggybacking D. reverse logistics E. RFID

A. ​vendor-managed inventory

Which of the following statements is true regarding initiating price​ cuts? A. Cutting prices in an industry with excess capacity may lead to price wars. B. When faced with falling​ demand, firms should not cut prices. C. Cutting price has no effect on costs. D. If faced with excess capacity a firm should not cut its price. E. Firms never cut​ prices, they only raise them.

A. Cutting prices in an industry with excess capacity may lead to price wars

Margaret has been invited to a fancy dinner party and wants to bring a good bottle of wine as a gift for the host. Because she does not know much about​ wine, she will likely use the price of the wines as​ a(n) __________. A. indicator of quality B. type of segmented pricing C. indicator of geographic pricing D. limited time offer E. indicator of the cost of production

A. indicator of quality

Which of the following best reflects the role of retailing in the distribution​ channel? A. All the activities involved in breaking down large volumes of goods for resale to retailers B. All the activities involved in selling products or services directly to final consumers for their​ personal, nonbusiness use C. All the activities involved in selling raw materials to manufacturers D. All the activities involved in selling goods over the Internet E. All the activities involved when consumers sell to other consumers on auction websites

B. All the activities involved in selling products or services directly to final consumers for their​ personal, nonbusiness use

Which of the following statements is correct regarding the functions channel members​ perform? A. Manufacturers can decrease costs by taking on more channel functions. B. Channel members create greater efficiencies than manufacturers could achieve on their own. C. Channel members fulfill a variety of​ functions, but in doing so do not take any risks. D. Channel members do not get involved in financing—in other​ words, the acquisition and use of funds to cover the costs of the channel work. E. Finding and engaging customers and potential buyers is not a function performed by channel members.

B. Channel members create greater efficiencies than manufacturers could achieve on their own.

Which of the following statements regarding dynamic pricing is​ correct? A. The dynamic pricing tactic of surge pricing is legally questionable. B. Dynamic pricing could cause consumer resentment and damage customer relationships. C. Dynamic pricing is only effective when used online. D. Dynamic pricing benefits only consumers. E. Because of dynamic​ pricing, online consumers no longer compare prices.

B. Dynamic pricing could cause consumer resentment and damage customer relationships.

Which of the following is a recent trend in​ wholesaling? A. Less attention to building valuable customer relationships B. Less distinction between large retailers and large wholesalers C. Increased costs due to the use of​ computerized, automated, and​ Internet-based systems D. Decreasing the services provided to retailers E. Less emphasis on efficiency

B. Less distinction between large retailers and large wholesalers​

Which of the following is a reason that producers use marketing channels and channel​ intermediaries? A. The reduced costs of using channel intermediaries offsets the inefficiencies of marketing channels. B. Marketing channel members are able to transform the assortments of products made by producers into the assortments wanted by consumers. C. Marketing channel decisions require only a​ short-term commitment. D. Using channel intermediaries increases the number of contacts with customers. E. Using marketing channels allows producers to retain full control over how and to whom they sell their products.

B. Marketing channel members are able to transform the assortments of products made by producers into the assortments wanted by consumers.

Which of the following statements regarding retailer pricing decisions is​ correct? A. ​High-low pricing is a strategy used by wholesalers when they sell to retailers. B. Most retailers seek either high markups on lower volume or low markups on higher volume. C. All retailers use some type of price promotions. D. Competition and economic factors do not influence retail pricing decisions. E. Everyday low pricing is a strategy that has proven to be ineffective.

B. Most retailers seek either high markups on lower volume or low markups on higher volume.

Retailers must decide on which three major product​ variables? A. Product​ assortment, price, and location B. Product​ assortment, services​ mix, and store atmosphere C. Product​ assortment, services​ mix, and price D. Product​ assortment, services​ mix, and location E. Product​ assortment, store​ atmosphere, and price

B. Product​ assortment, services​ mix, and store atmosphere

Which type of retailer carries narrow product lines with deep assortments within those​ lines? A. Superstores B. Specialty stores C. Department stores D. Convenience stores E. Discount stores

B. Specialty stores

Which of the following statements regarding marketing logistics is​ correct? A. It is important for companies to improve logistics even though logistics are not a source of competitive advantage. B. The goal of marketing logistics should be to provide a targeted level of customer service at the least cost. C. The goal of marketing logistics is to maximize sales. D. Sustainability is not relevant to marketing channel logistics and the supply chain. E. Marketing logistics handle only outbound logistics.

B. The goal of marketing logistics should be to provide a targeted level of customer service at the least cost.

Which wholesaler channel function helps reduce inventory holding​ costs? A. Buying and assortment building B. Warehousing C. Financing D. Transportation E. Risk bearing

B. Warehousing

​Omni-channel retailing includes all of the following EXCEPT​ ________. A. increasing​ in-store shopping channels B. changing only the​ in-store product mix C. boosting online selling options D. integrating available shopping channels E. ​cross-shopping on mobile devices

B. changing only the​ in-store product mix

Adidas' Fifth Avenue emporium showcases an adidas design concept that mimics a sports arena. Customers enter through a​ tunnel-like entrance, climb cement stairs to reach different​ floors, sit on bleachers to watch games broadcast live on large​ screens, and pay for their purchases at stations designed to look like ticket booths. The store features a miniature running track where customers can take a test run or get their stride analyzed to ensure​ they're buying the right shoe. This is an example of​ __________. A. ​full-service retailing B. experiential retailing C. ​one-stop shopping D. ​omni-channel retailing E. a community shopping center

B. experiential retailing

One key function of channel members is​ __________, which involves shaping offers to meet the​ buyer's needs, including activities such as​ manufacturing, grading,​ assembling, and packaging. A. promotion B. matching C. risk taking D. contact E. negotiating

B. matching

A soda pop company offers a discount to a grocer. In​ exchange, the grocer agrees to provide​ in-store advertising for the soda pop and additional​ sales-support. This is an example of​ __________. A. ​trade-in allowances B. promotional allowances C. cash discounts D. discounts E. segment discounts

B. promotional allowances

Cheese makers in Wisconsin sell their leftover brine to local city and county highway​ departments, which use it in conjunction with salt to melt icy roads. Which product mix pricing strategy does this​ represent? A. ​Product-bundle pricing B. ​By-product pricing C. ​Two-part pricing D. Product line pricing E. ​Optional-product pricing

B. ​By-product pricing

What are the four broad characteristics used to classify retail​ stores? A. ​Service, location,​ price, and organization B. ​Service, product​ lines, price, and organization C. ​Service, product​ lines, target​ market, and price D. ​Location, product​ lines, price, and organization E. ​Service, product​ lines, price, and location

B. ​Service, product​ lines, price, and organization

What is the purpose of the​ Robinson-Patman Act? A. To prevent price fixing B. To prevent unfair price discrimination C. To prevent predatory pricing D. To prevent scanner fraud E. To prevent deceptive pricing

B. To prevent unfair price discrimination

One form of​ __________ is when movie theaters charge one price for adults and a different price for senior citizens. A. promotional allowances B. ​customer-segment pricing C. psychological pricing D. ​location-based pricing E. product form pricing

B. customer-segment pricing

Recently, Amazon.com has been accused of​ __________, which is the practice of selling products below cost to harm competitors. A. price discrimination B. predatory pricing C. deceptive pricing D. retail price maintenance E. price fixing

B. predatory pricing

Whirlpool washers and dryers are offered in many different models. Whirlpool will use​ __________ pricing to determine the price steps between the different models. A. ​product-bundle B. product line C. ​two-part pricing D. ​optional-product E. ​captive-product

B. product line

What does the process of designing marketing channels start​ with? A. Identifying the types of intermediaries to use B. Setting channel objectives C. Analyzing consumer needs D. Evaluating major channel alternatives E. Identifying the number of intermediaries to use

C. Analyzing consumer needs

How do brokers and agents differ from merchant​ wholesalers? A. Brokers and agents do not take title and generally do not specialize by product line or customer type. B. Brokers and agents take title and perform a limited number of specialized functions. C. Brokers and agents do not take title and perform a limited number of specialized functions. D. Brokers and agents take title and generally specialize by product line or customer type. E. Brokers and agents take title and perform a wide variety of specialized functions.

C. Brokers and agents do not take title and perform a limited number of specialized functions.

Which of the following statements is true concerning new product pricing​ strategies? A. When using a​ market-skimming strategy, marketers do not need to focus on the​ product's quality and image. B. A​ market-penetration strategy should be used if the market is not highly price sensitive. C. For a​ market-skimming strategy to be​ successful, the costs of producing a smaller volume cannot be so high that they cancel the advantage of charging more. D. For a​ market-penetration strategy to​ work, production and distribution costs must increase as sales volume increases. E. If competitors can easily enter the​ market, a​ market-skimming strategy should be used.

C. For a​ market-skimming strategy to be​ successful, the costs of producing a smaller volume cannot be so high that they cancel the advantage of charging more.

Which of the following statements regarding green retailing is​ correct? A. Retailers today are hesitant to adopt environmentally sustainable practices. B. Green retailing initiatives hurt the bottom line by increasing costs. C. Green retailing initiatives extend to helping consumers be more environmentally responsible. D. The only current green retailing initiative is to offer environmentally friendly products. E. Green retailing takes place at the store and does not extend to other channel members.

C. Green retailing initiatives extend to helping consumers be more environmentally responsible.

A discount store​ (for example,​ Target, Kohl's, or​ Walmart) sells standard merchandise at lower prices. To do​ this, discount stores accept which of the following two​ conditions? A. Selling higher volume and having inefficient operations B. Lower margins and selling lower volume C. Lower margins and selling higher volume D. Operating at a loss and selling higher volume E. Higher margins and selling lower volume

C. Lower margins and selling higher volume

Which of the following statements regarding marketing channel behavior and design is​ correct? A. Conflicts rarely occur in marketing distribution channels. B. Distribution channels are nothing more than simple collections of firms tied together by various flows. C. The success of individual channel members depends on the overall​ channel's success. D. Vertical marketing systems lack leadership and​ power, often resulting in damaging conflict and poor channel performance. E. A conventional distribution channel consists of one or more independent​ producers, wholesalers, and retailers acting as a unified system.

C. The success of individual channel members depends on the overall​ channel's success.

When would a competitor most likely react to a​ firm's price​ change? A. When the number of firms involved is large B. When buyers are not well informed about the product C. When the number of firms involved is small D. When buyers are not well informed about prices E. When the product is differentiated

C. When the number of firms involved is small

Due to changes in​ technology, a recent trend is for product or service producers to cut out intermediaries and go directly to final buyers. This is one form of​ __________. A. channel dissolution B. disengagement C. disintermediation D. channel distress E. a vertical marketing system

C. disintermediation

CVS pharmacy stores have recently stopped selling cigarettes. For cigarette​ manufacturers, this highlights the challenge of​ __________ channel members. A. motivating B. compensating C. selecting D. rewarding E. evaluating

C. selecting

Firms producing consumer​ electronics, furniture, and home appliance brands typically distribute their products​ __________. A. through value added resellers B. exclusively C. selectively D. intensively E. through franchises

C. selectively

The length of a channel is determined by​ __________. A. the number of wholesalers in the channel B. the number of final consumers C. the number of intermediary levels D. the number of producers E. the number of retailers in the channel

C. the number of intermediary levels

The​ company, suppliers,​ distributors, and customers who "partner" with one another to improve the performance of the entire system make up the​ __________. A. downstream network B. upstream network C. value delivery network D. supply chain network E. marketing channel network

C. value delivery network

Many personal care companies combine toothpaste with a toothbrush at a reduced price. This is an example of​ __________ pricing. A. ​two-part B. product line C. ​by-product D. ​captive-product E. product bundle

E. product-bundle

Gillette charges a fairly low price for their razors​ (relative to​ costs) and a high price for razor blades. They are using a strategy of​ __________ pricing. A. ​two-part pricing B. ​by-product C. ​product-bundle D. product line E. ​captive-product

E. captive product

Which of the following statements about major retail trends is​ true? A. The lifecycle of new retail forms is increasing. B. The green movement has not yet affected retailing. C. Retail convergence has decreased competition for retailers. D. Online buying is growing at a much brisker pace than retail buying as a whole. E. The global expansion of major retailers into other countries has slowed down.

D. Online buying is growing at a much brisker pace than retail buying as a whole.

​Cross-functional teamwork within the​ company, building logistics​ partnerships, and​ third-party logistics are all important elements of​ __________. A. multimodal transportation B. reverse logistics C. sustainable supply chains D. integrated logistics management E. supply chain management

D. integrated logistics management

One recent retailing trend resulting from economic conditions is​ __________. A. green retailing B. retail convergence C. ​pop-up stores D. tighter consumer spending E. the rise of megastores

D. tighter consumer spending

Promotional pricing tactics include​ __________. A. ​discounts, limited time​ offers, and reference prices B. ​customer-segment pricing,​ location-based pricing, and​ time-based pricing C. ​discounts, geographical​ pricing, and​ special-event pricing D. ​discounts, special-event​ pricing, and limited time offers E. functional​ discounts, limited time​ offers, and​ location-based pricing

D. ​discounts, special-event​ pricing, and limited time offers

When Apple introduced their​ iPhone, they priced the new product at​ $599, considerably higher than either their iPod or competing cellular phones. Apple was pursuing​ a(n) __________ pricing strategy. A. ​captive-product B. ​optional-product C. ​by-product D. ​market-skimming E. ​market-penetration

D. ​market-skimming

Many amusement parks charge a daily ticket or season pass charge plus additional fees for food and other​ in-park features. This is called​ __________. A. ​optional-product pricing B. ​product-bundle pricing C. ​by-product pricing D. ​two-part pricing E. product line pricing

D. ​two-part pricing

Which of the following is an example of horizontal channel​ conflict? A. A retailer complaining about receiving damaged goods from a wholesaler. B. A consumer complaining to a producer about the quality of a product. C. A retailer complaining about a​ producer's pricing. D. A consumer complaining to a retailer about the service they received. E. A Ford dealer complaining that another Ford dealer is advertising in their territory.

E. A Ford dealer complaining that another Ford dealer is advertising in their territory.

Which of the following statements about retailer marketing decisions is​ correct? A. Stores do not need to differentiate and position themselves. B. Retailers do not differentiate themselves on their service mix. C. Most retailers seek either high markups on higher volume or low markups on lower volume. D. Retailers do not have to segment and target their markets. E. Many retailers identify three critical factors for retail​ success: location,​ location, and location.

E. Many retailers identify three critical factors for retail​ success: location,​ location, and location.

​__________ involves focusing the entire marketing process toward turning customers into buyers as they approach the point of sale. A. Retail convergence B. Wholesaling C. Retailing D. ​Full-service retailing E. Shopper marketing

E. Shopper marketing

Which of the following statements regarding initiating price increases is​ correct? A. Price increases do not impact profits. B. Prices should be increased when there is a lack of demand. C. Cost inflation is not a factor in price increases. D. Companies do not need to communicate reasons for price increases. E. The company should consider ways to meet higher costs or demand without raising prices.

E. The company should consider ways to meet higher costs or demand without raising prices.

In terms of​ location, most stores today cluster together. What is the primary reason for​ this? A. To ensure customers will not​ "one-stop" shop B. To ensure they all maintain the same profit margin C. To avoid paying taxes D. To achieve common ownership E. To increase their customer pulling power

E. To increase their customer pulling power

Which of the following statements regarding wholesaling is​ correct? A. Wholesalers do not make positioning decisions. B. Wholesalers do not need to differentiate themselves. C. Wholesalers do not need to segment their markets. D. Wholesalers do not need to define a target market. E. Wholesalers must make decisions regarding their marketing mix.

E. Wholesalers must make decisions regarding their marketing mix.

Walmart has a lot of power and exerts strong influence on the suppliers they buy from. This channel power is an example of​ a(n) __________ vertical marketing system​ (VMS). A. conventional B. contractual C. franchise D. corporate E. administered

E. administered

One new technology being adopted by retailers is​ __________. For​ example, when​ opted-in customers enter a​ store, a signal wakes up an app on their smartphone or​ tablet, which welcomes them and alerts them to​ location-specific rewards and personalized product recommendations within the store. A. scanners B. RFID C. virtual reality D. showrooming E. beacon technology

E. beacon technology

​Recently, superstores that are actually giant specialty​ stores, such as Petco and Home​ Depot, have seen tremendous growth. These types of superstores are called​ __________. A. ​off-price retailers B. warehouse clubs C. discount stores D. department stores E. category killers

E. category killers

A cluster of between 15 and 50 retail stores that usually contains a branch of a department store or variety​ store, a​ supermarket, specialty​ stores, professional​ offices, and​ (sometimes) a bank is a​ __________. A. neighborhood shopping center B. power center C. lifestyle center D. regional shopping mall E. community shopping center

E. community shopping center

Some sellers require that dealers not handle​ competitor's products. This strategy is called​ __________. A. ​full-line forcing B. intensive distribution C. exclusive distribution D. a tying agreement E. exclusive dealing

E. exclusive dealing

Assume a competitor has cut prices and a company determines they should respond. Effective actions that the company could initiate include​ __________. A. reducing perceived value B. decrease quality and increase prices C. improve quality and decrease prices D. raising prices E. launch a​ low-price fighter brand

E. launch a​ low-price fighter brand

Increasingly, different types of retailers now sell the same products at the same prices to the same consumers. This trend is called​ __________. A. green retailing B. megaretailing C. showrooming D. mobile retailing E. retail convergence

E. retail convergence

__________ is a practice whereby a producer agrees to sell a brand to a dealer only if the dealer agrees to sell some or all of the rest of its line. A. An exclusive territorial agreement B. Intensive distribution C. Exclusive dealing D. Exclusive distribution E. ​Full-line forcing

E. ​Full-line forcing

Which of the following statements regarding a​ just-in-time logistics system is​ correct? A. ​Just-in-time logistics systems allow producers and retailer to carry large amounts of inventory. B. ​Just-in-time logistics systems ensure that new stock arrives at least one week before it is needed. C. ​Just-in-time logistics systems greatly increase​ inventory-carrying and​ inventory-handling costs. D. ​Just-in-time logistics systems eliminate the need for forecasting. E. ​Just-in-time logistics systems allow producers and retailers to carry small inventories to last for only a few days of operations.

E. ​Just-in-time logistics systems allow producers and retailers to carry small inventories to last for only a few days of operations.

Which of the following statements regarding public policy and pricing is​ correct? A. Companies are usually free to charge whatever prices they wish. B. It is legal in some industries for sellers to collude with competitors when setting prices. C. Federal statutes apply to both interstate and intrastate commerce. D. Sellers are allowed to punish dealers who do not price a product at the​ manufacturer's suggested retail price. E. Companies​ can, under some​ circumstances, price items below cost.

E. Companies​ can, under some​ circumstances, price items below cost

Basic price​ adjustments, known as​ __________, are used to reward customers for certain responses. A. psychological prices B. ​location-based pricing C. discounts and allowances D. segmented prices E. discounts and allocations

c. discounts and allowances