RELS100 exam 2 sdsu
God as Image
Hinduism is an intensely imagistic religious tradition with images of supernatural beings and mythical beasts decorating homes and temples; imagistic representations of God are well suited for devotional practices; an image of a deity is a symbolic representation meant to aid devotees in contemplating the deity's divine attributes, but also believed to be suffused with divine presence; God becomes accessible to devotes through images (an image of god IS god)
Laozi is the Yin to Confucius' Yang
a learned scholar and exemplar of human moral accomplishment, pursue scholarship and enact moral behavior within the family and community (Confucius/Yang); the yin to Confucius' yang, the image of passive acceptance of what nature has ordained to Confucius' active attempt at improving society (Laozi/Yin)
I Ching's Basic Teaching
also called the book of changes; earliest expression of Chinese religious mindset from 2,000 BCE (basis of Confucianism and Daoism); "organismic" view (everything interacts continuously); honor ancestors; no creation myth, good or evil, sin or guilt; just strive for harmony and balance; two energies (Qi/ "Chi" = breath, force, power) emerge form an undifferentiated chaos yin and yang
Daoist Fasting Rituals
fasts (zhai) done by zhongmin (seed people) involved abstinence from food, public performance of penance for past moral transgressions, submission of written memorials to request pardon from the deities, and communal prayers for the salvation of the faithful (lasting several days); The Fast of Mud and Soot entailed believers prostrating themselves before a raised alter to ask for forgiveness from the gods
"New" Daoist Deities
Daoist leaders from aristocratic families created new texts and devised new rituals that they claimed were revealed to them through ecstatic encounters with an ever-growing number of deities
Wuxing Five Elements
metal, wood, fire, water, soil; mutually nurturing and destructive
Monism as Divine Reality
monism is the doctrine that all reality is ultimately one; it is non-dualistic in that there is no distinction between the divine reality and the rest of reality
Brahman as "God"
monistic Hindus believe Brahman to be the supreme, unitary reality that is the source of all being and all knowing; many dualistic Hindus use "God" to denote a universal being that encompasses all the various deities worshiped in Hinduism, and sometimes they use the term Brahman
Three Poisons
unethical speech and actions arise from greed, aversion, and delusion, which are based on a false understanding of reality and lead to suffering
How Shangdi becomes Tian
when the Shang Dynasty was overthrown and the Zhou Dynasty was founded, it was rationalized in religious terms as it was said to be sanctioned by Shangdi, who now had a different name/was a different kind of deity (Tian) which means the sky/the force above
Confucius's Abiding Faith in Transcendent Ultimate Tian
feels an intimate relationship with Tian, has a keen awareness of its command (ming) given to the moral and spiritual elites (junzi) to create the ideal human order (dao); believes in the tian-endowed human capacity for perfection and genuine humanity (ren) through self-cultivation, and enthusiastically participates in sacrificial rituals and familial and social rites (li)
Three Refuges
formal conversion of the first members of the sangha solemnized by their recitation of the "three jewels" (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha); to take refuge in the Buddha is to acknowledge the Buddha as the supreme example of the potential of human life; to take refuge in the Dharma is to recognize it as the path to enlightenment and an end to suffering; to take refuge in the Sangha is to recognize one's reliance on the Buddhist community (especially the order of monks) as the custodian of the Dharma, responsible for its preservation and transmission
Sat, Chit, Ananda
general attributes that are the only way to describe Brahman; infinite being/truth (sat), infinite awareness/consciousness (chit), infinite bliss (ananda)
Spirit World of Gui (bad)
ghosts and demons; malevolent spirits; the spirt of one who dies tragically or prematurely and is not given a suitable burial/sacrifice
Spirit World of Shen (good)
gods and deities; benevolent spirits; the spirit of one who dies at a ripe old age and is properly cared for by the descendants
Early Life of The Buddha
grew up living a sheltered and luxurious life with no hint of pain, and married a princess named Yasodhara, with whom he had a son; at age 29, Siddhartha ventured outside the sheltered world of the palace and saw things that were to change his life (the "four sights"); the first was a frail old man, the second was a man afflicted by disease; the third was a corpse being carried off to a cremation, and the fourth was a wandering ascetic who was homeless, without possessions, but seemed to be content
Why Buddha says so Little about Gods
his view concerning them is perhaps best described as "transtheistic", because although he appears to have acknowledged the existence of gods, he insisted that they are not helpful in bringing an end to suffering and in making progress toward enlightenment
Xian
Daoist immortals and perfected individuals
Organismic View
every single component of the cosmos belongs to an organic whole (need to honor ancestors)
Fangshi
"magicians" who allegedly possessed the recipe for immorality
Define Moksha
"release" or "liberation" from the bondage of samsara (three main paths to achieve it); for monistic Hindus, it's the union of the atman with Brahman, such that no sense of individuality any longer exists; for dualistic Hindus, it involves the external existence of the atman in the company of God; for all Hindus, it marks the end of the samsaric cycle of rebirth and the end of the effects of karma
The Hindu Trinity
Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the sustainer, Shiva is the destroyer
Second Buddhist Council
Buddha and monks were wanderers, but now monasteries form and they become diverse
The Three Vinegar Tasters
Confucius finds it sour, Buddha finds it bitter, Lao/Tzu finds it inherently good; three teachings as one since the three men gather around one vat of vinegar
Waidan
Daoist "external" alchemy involving refining of "pills" with herbs and minerals for ingestion so that immorality can be attained
Avatars
a "descent" of God to earth in a physical form with the specific goal of aiding the world; they are manifestations of Vishnu (believed to have ten forms, nine already appeared), whose primary function is the preservation of order in the world; Vishnu's final avatar (Kalki) will arrive at the end of the present age to usher in an era of peace; most popular avatars are Rama (Vishnu's seventh form) and Krishna (Vishnu's eighth form); the Bhagavad Gita presents Krishna as a manifestation of the supreme being who is coming to reinstate peace and harmony
Manjushri
a Bodhisattva who represents wisdom and equality; holds a sword in his right hand to symbolize his ability to cut through delusion; in his left hand, by his heart, he holds the stem of a lotus flower, which bears a book (the Perfection of Wisdom)
Perfection of Wisdom Sutra
a collection of 40 sutras (important in Mahayana Buddhism) referring to a perfected way of seeing the nature of reality, as well as to a particular body of sutras and to the personification of the concept in the Bodhisattva known as the "Great Mother"
Vesak Day
a day to honor the Buddha, the "awakened one", who taught great truths about the cause and cure for human suffering, and to also express gratitude for Buddhist monks who have preserved Buddha's teachings (known as the Dharma); commemorates three events that all took place on the full moon day of the Indian lunar month of Visakha= the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha; some bring offerings of candles and flowers to temples, others decorate shrines and light lamps to symbolize enlightenment, while most take care to observe the five precepts, as well as three other precepts otherwise required only of monks (abstaining from food after noon, not wearing jewelry or perfume, and not using soft beds or chairs); Tibetan Buddhists (who call this festival Saga Dawa) take turns bathing an image of the infant Buddha in scented water
Diwali Festival
a five day "festival of lights" celebrated between mid-October and mid-November that commemorates Rama's rescue of Sita and their heroic return to Ayodhya; involves setting out oil lamps on doorsteps and floating lamps placed in rivers; fireworks are lit on the night of the new moon (when Lakshmi is worshiped) and on the third day (which marks the end of the harvest season) Lakshmi Puja is performed to thank the goddess for the abundance she has given; new clothes are worn and gifts are exchanged
Mahabarata
a great Hindu epic (& the world's largest epic poem) composed of over 100,000 verses that are deeply concerned with issues of dharma; main storyline concerns a dynastic conflict between two groups of royal cousins (Pandavas=the heroes and Kauravas= the antagonists) that leads to a terrible war that marks the end of an epoch for humanity; Arjuna refuses to fight and the philosophical discourse known as the Bhagavad Gita begins with his conversation with Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu), which is regarded as the most significant philosophical work in Hinduism
Fendeng (spreading the light)
a ritual reenactment of the beginning of the cosmos; a Daoist priest blows on a buffalo horn, rings the "thunder" bell, and repeats "the Dao gives birth to the One (Being, Existence), the One brings forth the Two (Yin and Yang), the Two give rise to the Three (Tian, Di, and Humans), and the Three engender the Ten Thousand Things (world of multiplicity and diversity)";during the ceremony, the names of every member of the community are posted on a roster to signal their financial and spiritual support, as well as ensure benediction of the gods; climax is when the highest Daoist deities, the Three Purities and the Jade Emperor, are invited to take part in the ceremony; ends through a charitable act of "releasing life" and balance being restored
Upanishads Story of Number of Gods
a sage initially says there are three hundred and three, then three thousand and three, but upon reflection, he concludes there is only one; explains that the various powers of the divine manifest as countless deities; passage concludes with the name of the one god, Brahman (the supreme, unitary reality, the ground of all being); in later times, the traditional number grew to 330 million
Buddhist Violence in Myanmar
a small country in Southeast Asia (also known as Burma) whose Buddhist-dominated government has persecuted ethnic and religious minorities; most visible victims are the Rohingya people (Muslims) who have been denied citizenship, and suffered killings, house burnings, and displacement of thousands
Buddhist Violence in Sir Lanka
a small island country southeast of India whose majority, Sinhalese Buddhists, fought Hindu Tamils in a civil war (1983-2009) that killed more than 80,000; recent violence is against Muslims from an organization led by Buddhist monks (BBS) that sees Islam as a threat to their Buddhist culture; BBS attracts supporters through public rallies and social media
Hindutva and Nationalism
a term coined in 1923 by V. D. Savarkar meaning "Hindu-ness"; believed it was a force that would unite Hindus in repelling all dangerous influences; in 1925, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS; National Volunteer Corps) was founded by K. B. Hedgewar who was inspired by Savarkar's concept of Hindutva and their goal was to be a training ground for the self-empowerment of Hindu youth who were committed to defending a Hindu nation from the Muslim world; the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (later became Bharatiya Janata Party or BJP) was founded in 1951 by Syama Mookerjee and was a Hindu nationalist party specifically created to oppose the Indian National Congress (the more moderate party)
Holi Festival
a two day, colorful spring festival (always celebrated at the vernal equinox) celebrated in late February or early March (commencing on the full moon day of this period); on the first night, bonfires are lit and coconuts are offered as a sacrifice; the following day is a carnival celebration during which social and gender hierarchies are temporarily inverted, as crowds of young and old alike frolic in the streets, spraying colored water and staining one another with brightly colored powders
Siddhartha's Great Going Forth
after seeing the four sights, the ascetic pointed the way so he took off his expensive clothing and used his sword to cut off his hair (symbolically severing the bonds that tied him to his old life); the disciplines/techniques he learned from ascetic sages did not satisfy him so he committed to extreme ascetism (for five years he wore rags and didn't bathe); one day when he set out for the river, he overheard a music teacher explaining to his student that an instrument sitting wound too tight will break, whereas one that is too loose makes no sound at all (led him to his principle of the middle way); a woman then came to him with a bowl of porridge, which he ate, but as a result, his ascetic companions left him
Confucianism and Chinese Communist Movement
after the loss of the Opium War, Confucianism was blamed for China's political, social, and economic backwardness; resulted in the New Culture Movement (began in the second decade of the twentieth century) making Confucianism their main target of assault ("down with Confucius and sons!"); believed it to be a reactionary ideology of the ruling elite in China's feudal past that should be cast into the dustbin of history
Concluding Thoughts on Hinduism
all Hindus seek moksha (the ultimate liberation from samsara) and the realization of the true nature of the self and its relationship to the whole of reality; Hindus traverse three main paths to liberation= karma marga, jnana marga, and bhakti marga; Hinduism developed in a rural setting, in small villages, and even in forests, but is constantly being reshaped by modernization and globalization
The Upanishads
also known as Vedanta ("end of the Vedas") and the term Upanishad means "sitting down near a teacher"; for some Hindus, they contain the culmination of the wisdom of the Vedas; features philosophical speculation on the nature of the divine, the self, the world, and the relationships between them and propelled the development of the contemplative disciplines of yoga and meditation and influenced the philosophical concepts found later in the Bhagavad Gita; significant for describing for the first time the concepts of karma, samsara, reincarnation of the soul, and the soul's immortality, which were initially closely guarded secrets
The Analects of Confucius
an inherited package of ancient Chinese religious views that is made clear in the single most important work that contains his main teaching, the Lunyu (means "comments and sayings") but its translated as the Analects; believed to have been complied by leading disciples after his death, the extant twenty "books" of the Analects, taken as a whole, reflect a coherent picture of Confucius's major concerns and aspirations, as well as many new insights/creative interpretations of ancient Chinese beliefs/notions; contributed to the formation of a distinct tradition with unique views on humanity and its relation to the ultimate reality
Types of Puja
arati involves an offering of light (usually a lamp fueled with ghee) and the five flames used symbolize the five elements (earth, water, fire, air, and ether), as well as the totality of the universe
Pure Land
arguably the most important school within the Mahayana tradition; based on the belief in the infinite compassion of the Amitabha Buddha; best known for its practice of reciting the Buddha's name as a way of guaranteeing entry into his Pure Land at death; no more rebirth in the samsaric world, their reward for devotion is happiness in his heavenly paradise
Why Bhakti Emerged
arose as a challenge to the traditions of Buddhism and Jainism in India; devotion now came to be expressed through poetry, art, architecture, and temple building; wandering poets (who used vernacular languages such as Tamil, Kannada, and an early form of Hindu) roamed the countryside and converted royalty and commoners alike, and kings sought legitimacy through poets' songs that praised the kings as the representatives of the gods Shiva and Vishnu (strengthened alliance between religion and politics); practitioners often rejected ritual and temple-based worship, insisting that the body is itself a temple and that God dwells in every individual (caste did not determine one's access to God)
Siddhartha's Enlightenment
at a village in northern India now known as Bodh Gaya, he sat down beneath a fig tree and vowed to remain there in meditation until he gained the understanding he sought (meditated for forty-nine days); he recalled all of his past lives and saw how karma (the law of actions and their consequences) had been at work throughout time; he realized that desire is the cause of suffering and that for suffering to end there must be an end to desire; also brought freedom from rebirth, which results from attachment to the world; he had attained nirvana (the "extinguishing" of desire and suffering) and set out to teach what he had learned
Tian
believed to be the source of all things in the universe (not as a creator, but rather as a procreator); the ultimate divine entity that provided order throughout the cosmos; also a "will" that would support only the morally deserving as king; not swayed by claimed blood ties or sacrificial presentations
Five Cardinal Human Relations
between father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brothers, ruler and subject, and friends; they obligate individuals to perform their respective roles in society
Facts of Gandhi's Life
born into a middle-class family of merchants in 1869, he was an English-educated lawyer and a deeply religious man and was revered as a saint or Mahatma ("great soul"); during his political career in South Arica, he began to develop his political philosophy of non-violent resistance; characterized as satyagraha ("grasping the truth"), he explained that its strength lay in converting wrongdoers to justice rather than striving to coerce them; returned to India in 1915 (to join the Indian independence movement) and established an ashram (place of religious seclusion based on Henry Thoreau's ideas) whose motto was "the truth alone will prevail" (satyameva jayate from Upanishads); strove to abolish caste system (untouchability) and improve the status of women; assassinated in 1948 by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist who thought he was too accommodating of Muslims
Three Stages to Realizing the Absolute Truth
brahman (see & be one with the white light through meditation/yoga), paramatma, and bhagavan
Define Dharma
can mean law, duty, righteousness, or even "religion", all of which have to do with living in a way that upholds cosmic and social order; traditionally believed to have been divinely revealed to the rishis (poet sages who composed the Vedas)
Mencius
claimed to be the rightful successor to Confucius and the Mencius (an eponymous work compiled by some of his leading disciples) is significant as a Confucian scriptural text; unlike Confucius (who did not regard himself as a sage), he boldly declares his predecessor's sage-ness and also insists on his own; he considers every human being a potential sage, as he believes that each possess all the innate qualities to become one; asserts the intrinsic goodness of human nature which he compares to the natural tendency of water to flow downward
De
commonly translated as "virtue" but more accurately as "potency"; the charismatic power the king possessed that allowed him to rule with authority and legitimacy
The Ramayana
composed between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E., "The Journey of Rama" is a compelling tale of political intrigue, romance, and philosophical speculation; tells the story of a ten-headed demon king named Ravana, who was rewarded for his austerities with the granting of a wish by Brahma; for many Hindus, the characters serve as exemplary social role models (Sita is the faithful wife, Rama is the ideal man and perfect king, Lakshmana is the loyal brother, and Hanuman is the selfless devotee; imparts religious and ethical knowledge as a text that reinforces Hindu beliefs about the accessibility and immanence of God
The Jiao (offering)
conducted at periodic intervals or as a special thanks to deities, brings the Daoist community together to participate collectively in a religious ritual that is loud, colorful, and dramatic
The Yoga Sutras
consists of 196 instructional sayings about the moral, physical, and mental conditions and techniques that can enable the individual to achieve moksha; eight steps practitioners move in their quest for liberation= first two steps have to do with moral preparation, next three steps involve preparation of the body, next two steps prepare the mind for liberation, and the last step is the ultimate goal of samadhi (a state in which one's awareness is of the self as Brahman)
Zhuangzi's Main Teaching
consists of 33 chapters divided into three sections (Inner, Outer, Miscellaneous) and is effusive and vividly narrative; does not regard the Dao as mother and is dismissive of politics; the Dao is not only the ineffable transcendent entity that gives rise to all things but also the immanent core that exists in all things, from the loftiest perfected beings to the lowliest broken pieces of tile and excrement (it's omnipresent, making all things ultimately equal); advocates "care-free wandering" (xiaoyao yu), "fasting the mind/heart" (xinzhai), and "sitting and forgetting" (zuowang) in order to arrive at the perfect intuitive understanding of the Dao
Five Precepts
the most important of ethical principles to Buddhists; (1) not killing or causing harm to living beings, (2) not stealing, (3) not engaging in sexual misconduct, (4) not lying, (5) not using intoxicants
Deification of Laozi ("old baby"
crucial development that led to the rise of Daoism as an organized religion; after Laozi came to be revered as a human incarnation of the Dao, a belief arose that the Dao could now intervene in human affairs and directly and personally impart teaching to the faithful through its human form; as the object of worship, the Dao (for the first time) was a human-like being that demanded and received religious devotion; various incarnations of Laozi such as in the form of a messianic figure dedicated to the salvation of the world (title was Taishang Laojun/the Venerable Lord of the Most High)
Confucian Religious Corpus
designated by the Neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi, it includes the Four Books, but the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean (which were chapters from the Book of Rituals) have been excerpted as independent texts due to their religious significance; the great learning refers to learning about what is of primary importance and provides a practical step-by-step roadmap for self-cultivation; the doctrine of mean begins with a bold declaration ("What Tian has ordained is called human nature. Following this nature is called the Dao. Cultivating the Dao is called teaching.") and makes it clear that to actualize their genuine humanity and divine potential, human beings must fully engage with others
Define Karma
determines the course of the atman through successive incarnations; means "action" but also the consequences of action; to ensure the future will be good, actions now must be good (live in conformity with dharma)
Buddha's Death and Parinirvana
died forty-five years after his enlightenment due to something in his meal being tainted, causing him to become fatally ill; Ananda made a bed for him between two trees and monks began to gather asking what to do without his teaching, to which he responded that the Dharma would always be their guide; without attachments to the world and unbound by karmic forces that would have brought another incarnation, he passed into parinirvana (the complete and final entry into nirvana)
Dharma
duty, righteousness, "religion"; basis for living in a way that upholds the cosmic and social order
Meditation Practice
enables practitioners to identify, understand, and eliminate patterns of thought that perpetuate desire and suffering (Buddhists use two different types); samatha (calm abiding) cultivates the ability to focus on awareness on a single object of concentration (usually breath); vipassana (insight, also called mindfulness meditation) is awareness itself, typically beginning with focus on the breath which brings focused concentration and a stable mind
Confucius is Who?
even though Confucius has been rightfully credited with giving prominence and religious meaning to this tradition (Confucianism), he is by no means the founder and he is not worshiped as a supernatural savior; the name Confucius is problematic as it is a Latinized way of representing the Chinese reference to "Kong Fu Zi", the horrific way of addressing "Master Kong", whose full name is Kong Qui (551-479 BCE)
Started in Indus Valley
history of Hinduism can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1700 BCE) and to the Indo-Aryan peoples who composed the Vedas (1200-900 BCE); archaeological excavations have yielded evidence of trade with regions as far away as Mesopotamia, impressive skill in metallurgy, handicrafts, and urban planning, and a vast number of stone seals that were perhaps used to stamp products for trade; the most famous seal has been called the Proto-Shiva due to the male figure depicted wearing a buffalo-horned headdress, appearing to have three faces, and seated in a yoga posture with animals surrounding him; terracotta figures found depict women who are thought to be representations of a mother goddess; primary cause of the fall of the Indus Valley was climatic change that disrupted agriculture (another possible cause is the migration of Aryans)
First Buddhist Council
immediately after Buddhas death in 483 BCE, 500 monks convened in Rajagriha; dharma became the primary authority of the sangha (community of monks)
Three Marks of Existence
impermanence, suffering, and no-self; the Buddha's doctrine of impermanence (anicca) holds that all things are always changing; the Buddha's teaching about suffering (dukkha) is central to the Dharma and these three qualities of attachment, aversion, and ignorance as known as the "Three Poisons"; the doctrine of no-self (anatman) taught that just as there are no other things that remain unchanged, there is no static self that remains the same
Yoga
in its most basic sense means a "yoking" or "uniting"; in religious discourse, it refers to the uniting of the self with God; as a form of jnana marga, it employs both physical and mental techniques in order to make liberation from samsara possible (often called Raja "Royal" Yoga)
Ancient Laws of Manu & Women
in the course of its extensive coverage of varnashrama dharma, it includes some statements that confer upon women a relatively high place; at the same time, numerous passages subordinate and marginalize women, clearly asserting the predominance of father, husband, and even sons
Zhang Ling Encounters Deified Laozi
in the year 142 CE, he alleged that Laozi indicated to him that the world was in great trouble and the he, Zhang Ling, would be taught the right knowledge and proper practice to save it; he adopted the title of Tianshi (Celestial Master) and would transmit the teaching called Orthodox Unity; the movement is sometimes referred to as "Five Bushels of Rice" because of the amount of contributions members were expected to make at their initiation
Tianming
insists on moral uprightness as the only condition for its reward of political authority and legitimacy; also labeled as ming; the "mandate" given by Tian to the person and the imperial line that was to rule on Tian's behalf; could be revoked/withdrawn and could be transferred to another person or family any time its provisional holder was found wanting in moral standing (known as "geming")
Define Puja
involves making some offering to the deity (such as fruit, incense, or flowers), and then the deity is believed to partake of the devotion inherent in the offering; the material aspect of the offerings left behind is thought to be infused with the deity's blessing; it can be simple or elaborate and can be offered almost anywhere
Is Daoism a "Religion"
it fits Bruce Lincoln's definition of religion's four domains (discourse, practice, community, and institution); richly informed by elaborate belief in the cosmological importance of the human body, with a salvational message of communal redemption, and yearning for physical transformation and perfection
Daodejing's Key Point about the Dao
it is the primordial entity that exists in an undifferentiated state prior to the coming into being of myriad things, including Tian and Di, which now stand for nothing more than nature itself; it is Dao that gives birth like a mother to the myriad things, and serves as the primal source of the cosmos (not Tian); compared to a "mysterious female", "water", "infant", and "uncarved block", all alluding to the beginning of life and form; can only maintain its pristine form when humans leave it alone
Characterize Hinduism
its history embodies both continuity and change; has neither a single founder nor a single sacred book; its diversity has led many scholars to argue that it's not one religion but a constellation of many religious sects that share some common aspects
Basic History/Biography of Confucius
just a ru who was born into a family of former aristocrats in the feudal domain of Lu (located in present day Shandong Province in north China) and lifted himself up from poverty through his desire for and success in scholarship; believed to have put the major classical works (such as Book of Odes, Book of Changes, etc.) into final form and authored the book Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals) which is about the history of the late Zhou period; he was a fully human figure with no claim to supernatural origin or power and was the consummate representative of the ru tradition and an exemplary teacher
How Karma affects Samsara
karma means action; what we give, not what we get; karma is how one breaks free of the cycle of samsara
Mahayana Key Points
largest of Buddhist traditions (meaning "great vehicle") whose scriptures include the Pali canon (tripitakan) and sutras (such as the lotus sutra and heart sutra); flexible doctrines allow for easy coexistence; lay people can attain nirvana and practice having compassion for others and working at bringing about others liberation; many take a bodhisattva vow and practice the "six perfections" (generosity, morality, patience, energy, meditation, wisdom)
Nirvana
liberation from suffering in the cyclic existence of samsara (means "blowing out" or "extinguishing" in Sanskrit); the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice which is extinguishing desire that leads to suffering; all people have the potential to attain it, but the Buddha said very little about it as it is something that must be experienced in order to be understood
Moksha
liberation, the final release from samsara; the ultimate aim of human existence
Four Stages of Life
main aspect of the varnashrama dharma system involves the ashrama ("stage of life") which are the student, the householder, the forest-dwelling hermit, and the renouncer (the sannyasi); the student's main duty is to acquire a sufficient understanding of the Vedas; the householder's duties include supporting those in the other three stages of life; Hindu's in the last two stages focus primarily on seeking moksha or liberation, first by detaching themselves from the worldly concerns of the householder and then, once this detachment has been achieved, by entering the fourth stage of the renouncer, or sannyasi
The Self Arises from Five Skandhas
matter or body (rupa), the manifest form of the four elements (earth, air, fire, water), sensatisons or feelings (vedana), perceptions of sense objects (samjna), mental formations (samskaras), and awareness or consciousness of the other three mental aggregates (vijnana); the skandhas separate at death; energy is passed on; the enlightened are not reborn
"Lokah Samastah Sukhino Bhavantu"
may all beings everywhere be happy and free
Buddhism Origins and Expansion
originated in Nepal and thrived in India; expanded into Central, East, and Southeast Asia; spreading south into Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia and north into Central Asia and East Asia (Afghanistan, China, Korea and Japan, Vietnam, Tibet); spread westward in colonial period to Europe and North America
Women in Buddhism
most of Buddhism's institutions were formed and controlled primarily by men, and in mainstream monasteries, nuns did not have much of a place in the preservation and transmission of the Dharma; Buddhist women did take on roles as lay Buddhists or wandering ascetics; Empress Wu Zetian of Tang Dynasty China and Queen Camadevi of northern Thailand left a mark in Buddhism history as patrons whose support and example helped spread traditions; even in early years, traditions acknowledged and preserved the compositions of its woman saints (such as in the Therigatha/Poems of Female Elders); nuns given full ordination and regarded with the same respect as males only in China, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam; Buddha believed allowing nuns into the order would only hasten the demise of the Buddhist teaching; full ordination of women has recently begun to be revived in most of the Theravada world; Ayya Khema organized the First Council of Buddhist Nuns which led to the worldwide organization called Sakyadhita ("Daughters of the Buddha") and in 1987, she became the first Buddhist nun to address the United Nations
Neo-Confucianism Revitalization
movement that led to Confucianism regaining the initiative over its Daoist and Buddhist rivals and becoming the predominant religious tradition in China until the modern era; as advocated by its most eloquent representative, the scholar Zhu Xi (1130-1200), its new scriptural corpus, the Four Books, composed of the Analects, the Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean, would constitute the main curriculum upon which the civil service examination of late imperial China would be based; Wang Yangming (1472-1529) challenged Zhu Xi's interpretations regarding the best way to attain the same goal of "inner sagely moral perfection and outer political ability and administrative skills" (neisheng waiwang)
Basic Vedic Mythology
much of ritual sacrifice involved pouring of offerings into a sacrificial fire as Vedic hymns were recited; they considered fire a god, known as Agni, who was the mouth of the gods and the gateway to the celestial realms; Indra, the god of lightening, thunder, and rain, and the virile god of fertility itself, is the most powerful and king of the gods; hymns shift away from an emphasis on myth, cosmology, and sacrifice to a keener interest in philosophy and introspection in the later Vedic period
Hinduism Key Facts
named in the 19th century; racial, social, and cultural designation (alexander the great); no single deity, no single sacred book, no single historical event; continuity and change (fluid); one billion people and one religion...or a constellation of many?
Key Ancient Chinese Religious Views
no creation myth; no sin or guilt; just strive for harmony and balance
Concluding Thoughts on Daoism
not confined to the metaphysical discussions of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi, but rather is richly informed by an elaborate belief in the cosmological importance of the human body, a salvational message of communal redemption, and an abiding yearning for physical transformation and perfection; Daoist concerns for the well-being of the human body and harmonious relationship with the spiritual world shape contemporary Chinese attitudes toward health, medicine, cuisine, and the environment
Concluding Thoughts on Confucianism
not just a teaching of ethics and good government but is in fact informed by a deep religious faith in a numinous Absolute (Tian); mandates dedicated human effort to transform the individual and the world; Confucian values continue to inform Chinese familial ethics and social and political behavior
Bodhisattvas
objects of devotion ("supernatural being") and are believed to bestow benefits on those who call upon them
Zen Buddhism
one of the best known Mahayana Buddhist schools in the West that emphasizes practice over doctrine, considering doctrine to be a distraction from the sudden, spontaneous experience of enlightenment called satori; any form of attachment, even to the Buddha, is an obstacle ("if you meet the Buddha on the road, kill him"); their sayings called koans present the mind with paradoxes and resolving them through logic leads to rational cognition abandoned and direct intuition of reality (enlightenment) remains; its creative aspect, deeply ingrained sense of humor, and its emphasis on direction apprehension over doctrine helped popularize it in American pop culture; most radically self-reliant tradition
Laozi (Master Lao)
one of the founding fathers of Daoism who was more of a composite figure than an actual person, and was the reputed author of the Daodejing (also known as the Laozi) that suggests individuals can acquire impressive powers of transformation and invulnerability to the decaying agents in nature through intense inner psychic journeying and mystical conditioning of the human body
Zhuangzi (Master Zhuang)
one of the founding fathers of Daoism, credited with authorship of the second most influencial Daoist text, the Zhuangzi, which is very similar to the Daodejing, and provides descriptions of perfected human beings who possess amazing powers of magic and immortality
Kirtan
performed in lively sing-along processionals that roam the streets, typically using instruments but they're not necessary; two different types of performances; in one type, the kirtan leader and the chorus alternate singing the divine name; in the other type, a hymn is communally recited; especially popular for the Vaishnava sect
Gupta Empire
period of remarkable creativity and peace & prosperity ("The Golden Age of India" 900-200 BCE) surrounding arts, sciences, religion, and literature; epics took on their definitive forms and the first of the Puranas was compiled; rulers practiced religious tolerance and sponsored groups/institutions associated with Buddhism, Jainism, and other religions; worship of Vishnu and Shiva became increasingly popular and there was a shift from worship at open-air sacrificial alters to worship in temples; rise of devotional Hinduism in part due to the two great Sanskrit epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) that were concerned with political problems, dynastic successions, duty, and obligations
Caste system (Varna)
refers to a system of hierarchical organization (four main classes); determined by birth and is propagated through endogamy, or marriage only within a particular group; Brahmin is the priestly class, Kshatriya is the warrior and administrator class, Vaishya is the producer class (such as farmers and merchants), and Shudra is the servant class; the Rig Veda includes a poem known as Purusha Sukta, which tells how people emerge from the cosmic man (brahmins from his mouth, kshatriyas from his arms, vaishyas from his thighs, shudras from his feet); fifth group below the shudras called dalit ("untouchables" or "outcastes") continue to suffer terrible oppression
The Vedas
refers to all of Vedic literature that is believed to have been "heard" by the rishis (ancient poet-sages) and belongs to a category of Hindu texts known as shruti ("that which is heard"), as opposed to the other category, smriti ("tradition"); in a more narrow sense, it refers to four collections (samhitas) of texts including the Rig Veda (a collection of hymns to the gods), the Sama Veda (melodic renditions of hymns from the Rig Veda), the Yajur Veda (ritual formulas), and the Atharva Veda (hymns, spells, and incantations)
Ren and Confucius
ren (benevolence, humaneness, virtue) is the most important article of faith held by Confucius; it's the kernel of humanity that exists intrinsically in all human beings; etymologically, it points to the interrelatedness among humans, for in writing it is a combination of the character for person and the character for the number two, signaling that it is in a "state of person-to-person" that ren can be enacted; ren is all-rounded, multifaced, and a life without ren is meaningless; people who can preserve and develop their ren can be entrusted to carry out the imperative of tian
Nature/Cows/Rivers are Sacred
rivers are worshiped as embodying the creative energy that generates the universe, as well as being powerful places of crossing between the divine and the terrestrial worlds (Ganges in India is most important); Mount Kailash, believed to be the home of the god Shiva, draws devotees who perform a ritual circumambulation of the mountain over the course of several days; the type of fig tree under which Gautama the Buddha attained enlightenment is sacred to the god Vishnu; the cow is revered as a second mother and their worship is an expression of respect for creatures that help humanity
Mantras
sacred sounds or syllables used in chanting
The Four Aims of Life
sets forth Hinduism's primary spiritual purposes and goals; dharma (duty or righteousness), kama (sensual enjoyment), artha (material wealth and social prestige), and moksha (liberation)
The "goddess" Amma
she is a famous hugging goddess who travels the world
Tian and the Dao
the message that Tian seeks to convey through the spiritual elite is the Dao (the way); it is the entire normative social-political-ethical order with the prescriptions for proper ritual behavior publicly, as well as moral rectitude privately; the search for and embodiment of the Dao is the ultimate, paramount task in life
Tian in the Analects
silently manifests itself in the course of the seasons and in the records of human events to allow perceptive individuals to detect the full content of its command (once that imperative is firmly understood, the individual becomes the new recipient of the ming of Tian); tian is clearly the highest religious authority, as well as ultimate reality, who consciously "intends" human beings to have civilization in the form of a perfect order; to that end, it reaches out to a few noble individuals (this is Tian's mandate or imperative (ming); tianming is no longer a bestowal of dynastic power to the political rulers but instead a call to moral action to the spiritual elite; changed the nature of tianming as it became the self-ascribed duty of the moral individual to serve as mouthpiece to a Tian that did not speak itself, to be inspired and motivated by the sense of mission, indeed of commission, by Tian
Wuwei
stated in the Daodejing as the ideal course of action for insightful and wise human beings through observation; means actions without intention; calls for a minimalist and noninterventionist attitude in human action to attempt to return to the Dao
Ziran
stated in the Daodejing as the ideal course of action for insightful and wise human beings through observation; means natural spontaneity; rejects any artificiality and contrived undertaking as detrimental to the well-being of humans and nature to attempt to return to the Dao
Define Tantra
system of ideas and practices, such as breathing techniques, yogic postures, and symbols, that potentiates sudden liberation from samsara; assumes the interweaving and interconnectedness of all things, including pure consciousness (identified with Brahman or Shiva) and material reality (identified with Shakti); due to disapproval of rituals that violated social conventions, it for the most part remained hidden during its later development
Confucianism as Pan-Asiatic
thanks to the dynamic influence of Zhu Xi and his intellectual successors, Confucianism became the dominant philosophy and state orthodoxy, beginning with the Joseon Dynasty in Korea (fourteenth century), the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan (seventeenth century), and the Nguyen Dynasty in Vietnam (nineteenth century); Asian neighbors of China echo much of what existed in China during its late imperial period (fourteenth to twentieth centuries)
India's Current Political System
the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress are the two major parties today; organizations espousing Savarakar's Hindutva ideology are under an umbrella group called the Sangh Parivar; the RSS is the cultural wing, the BJP is the political wing, and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP or World Hindu Council) is the religious wing of the Sangh Parivar
Eightfold Path
the Buddha's prescription for a way of life that leads to enlightenment; based on the principle of the middle way, it is also defined by eight virtues= right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration
Concluding Thoughts on Buddhism
the Buddha's teaching is intended to dislodge the mind from clinging to the illusion of permanence and to empower each individual to find the joy and freedom this realization brings; has inspired productive and progressive forms of social dissidence and political liberation in the modern era
Darshan
the Sanskrit word means "to see", but in the Hindu context it refers specifically to the interlocking gaze shared by the deity and the devotee; it is the intimate act of both seeing the deity and being looked upon by the divine, an act that establishes a loving relationship between devotee and God; the act is often the most meaningful experience for Hindus and most go to a local temple or on pilgrimage to a sacred site where they give sixteen offerings to deities (the eighth and most important involves pouring auspicious substances over the icon); the ideal moment is when the temple rituals end with the waving of lamps before the image
The Aryans
the ancient speakers of Sanskrit who moved to the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE and referred to themselves as the Arya (those who are "noble", "cultivated", and "civilized"); warlike and nomadic people who revered the house, placed special importance on sacrifice, and organized their society into a three-part structure (brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas)
Define Samsara
the continuing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; also the this-worldly realm in which birth, death, and rebirth recur (until the true nature of the atman is recognized); the most desirable rebirth is as a human being in a situation that offers the greatest opportunity for realizing liberation from samsara (such as a sage or an ascetic); want to escape because beyond the samsaric realm lies something inexpressibly better
Interdependent Origination
the doctrine, also known as Dependent Origination, that reality is a complex of interrelated and interdependent phenomena in which nothing exists independently; instead, the origination of all things depends on other things
Shengren/Sheng
the epitome of the junzi (a sage); the rarest of human beings who are perfect in their moral standing and kingly in their worldly accomplishments; traditional Chinese character for sage contains three components (ear, mouth, ruler) and hears/listens to the way of tian, conveys it to others through the mouth, and acts in the capacity of the ancient ruler whose job is to link up the three realms of heaven, earth, and humankind
Tripitaka (Pali Canon)
the first canon of Buddhist texts consisting of three "baskets" or collections of sutras on palm leaves
Ashoka (Third Buddhist Council)
the first great champion of Buddhism who united the subcontinent of South Asia; carved on stone pillars, his "rock edicts" promoted moral purity, self-awareness, and non-violence
Sermon in the Deer Park
the first place Buddha went after his enlightenment (a deer park) where the five ascetics who had earlier abandoned him were still practicing harsh austerities (he gave his first teaching to them); he told them of the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path, which all describe the cause and cure of suffering, and then the five ascetics became Buddha's first followers (the first Buddhist monks and the first members of the Buddhist sangha/community); a cousin named Ananda became one of the Buddha's most devoted disciples (even called the "Guardian of the Dharma")
Five Classics
the five canonical works of Confucianism designated in the Han Dynasty; they are the Book of Odes, Book of History, Book of Changes, Record of Rites, and Spring and Autumn Annals
Four Noble Truths
the four truths that form the basis of the Dharma= suffering is inherent in life, the cause of suffering is desire, there is a way to put an end to desire and suffering, and the way is the Noble Eightfold path
New Sects Form Around Gurus, Saints, & Sages
the fully enlightened are regarded as being the most immediate means of accessing the divine reality directly, either to obtain material and mundane blessings or to receive spiritual teaching to quicken one's own journey toward moksha; have been responsible for the formation of the specific philosophical orientation of various sects and monastic orders, making interpretation of sacred texts and belief more systematic and consistent; founding roles of Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva in the Vedanta schools; roles of guru as founder and authority are characteristic of Hindu movements outside of India, such as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, the Osho Rajneesh Movement, and Transcendental Meditation
Shangdi
the higher, more authoritative deity who was the most powerful god in the Shang spiritual world and happened to be the ancient ancestor of the Shang imperial house; known as the Lord on High, he monitored the behavior of the royal descendants, dispensing rewards and meting out punishments as appropriate
Neisheng Waiwang
the later Neo-Confucian goal of inner moral cultivation and external skillful management of society and state
Theravada Key Points
the main, authentic founding Buddhism path (the way of the elders) that pursues nirvana through study (of the tripitaka/pali canon) and meditation; monastic body (sangha) advises government and teaches lay community
Junzi
the noble man, the man of virtue, and the superior man (noble ru) whose shoulders rest the burden of reviving and preserving the Dao (men of moral rectitude); someone highborn becomes someone high-minded and from those of noble birth become those of noble worth; the prophet-like individuals who receive Tian's call even though they hold no political office or privileged positions; the self-cultivation will earn them a power (de) similar to that possessed by the ancient sage rulers; a charismatic, noncoercive, potent influence that both inspires and persuades, and coaxes and shames, people into doing what is right
Yin
the north-facing, shady side of a mountain; female, cold, night
Rig Veda
the oldest and most important of the Vedas texts, that includes 1,028 hymns and praises the gods/asks for their blessings; the gods include Indra (god of lighting, thunder, and rain and king of the gods), Agni (god of fire and messenger of the gods), and Varuna (god of law and order who later becomes god of the sea); the deity Purusha, who is described in the hymn Purusha Sukta, describes the sacrifice of a primordial, cosmic man out of whose body the universe is created
Bhakti Marga
the path of devotion (the most widely practiced); focuses on eradicating egotism, ignorance, and attachment to the objects of desire (one of the three paths to liberation)
Karma Marga
the path of ethical and ritual works, or "action"; focuses on the dharma with an attitude of detachment with regard to acting and to the results, or "fruit" of action (one of the three paths to liberation)
Jnana Marga
the path of knowledge; focuses on spiritual insight through disciplined study of sacred texts and intensive contemplation, typically through the practice of mediation (one of the three paths to liberation)
Vedanta
the predominant school of Hindu philosophy that emerged out of the Upanishads; asserts that the Upanishads reveal the truth about the fundamental questions of existence and led to many different schools arising within it
OM
the primordial sound through which the universe is manifested; divine reality as a sound (the fire within you); "A" (first vowel in Sanskrit) is awakening, "U" (final vowel in Sanskrit) is dreaming consciousness, "M" (final consonant in Sanskrit) is deep sleep without dreaming
Yang
the south-facing, sunny side of a mountain; male, hot, day
Define Atman
the undying soul or self whose nature is neither limited by the physical body nor defined by its relationship with the world; moves from body to body through successive incarnations; monistic Hinduism teaches that the atman is Brahman
Teachings of the Ru
the way Chinese refer to the tradition of Confucianism; ru refers to scholars and ritualists
Jati
thousands of sub-castes that further classify the caste system and has made social hierarchy more fluid; literally means "birth group"
Human Body and Soul in Chinese Religion
three parts spirit and seven parts physical (3 "hun" and 7 "po"); at death, hun departs to sky and po settles down to earth
The "Dao"
tian's workings that provide order and regularity in nature and in the human world (its "way" or "path"); by following this, both the natural and human worlds would reach their optimal potential
Leader's De and Li
to fulfill his roles as both king and priest, the Zhou ruler had to observe a set of behavioral practices collectively referred to as li ("rituals" or "rites"); correct/sincere performance of li would convince Tian of the ruler's moral worth, ensure Tian's continuous favor, and guarantee the ruler's power through his de, which is his "potency"
Define "Tat Tvam Asi"
translates to "thou art that"; dharma is ultimate reality, reality as it is
Qi
two polar yet complementary energies; "breath", "energy", or "force"
