research final pwpts

The Ethics of Reading and Writing Social Research

-A review of the literature should not be biased toward supporting a particular point of view. -Research ethics is a fundamental component of social science, not a nice afterthought.

-Practice: The following list represents the scores on a mid-term exam. 100, 94, 88, 91, 75, 61, 93, 82, 70, 88, 71, 88 -Determine the mean. -Determine the mode. -Determine the median.

-Add up the values and divide by the number of cases. Summing the values yields 1001. Divide this value by 12, the number of cases. The mean is 83.4. -One value, 88, occurs more often than any other value. The mode is 88. -Reordering the cases from low to high: 61, 70, 71, 75, 82, 88, 88, 88, 91, 93, 94, 100 The two middle values of these 12 cases are both 88; therefore the median is 88.

Quantification of Data

-Age: 1 = 1 2 = 2 3 = 3 4 = 4 5 = 5 -Sex Male = 1 Female = 2 -Political Affiliation Democrat = 1 Republican = 2 Independent = 3 -Region of Country West = 1 Midwest = 2 South = 3 Northeast = 4

Writing Social Research: Some Basic Considerations

-Audience -Form and Length of Report -Aim of Report

Cautions in Regression Analysis

-Based on statistical assumptions -Interpolation versus extrapolation

Chi-Square

-Based on the null hypothesis. -Computation: --For each cell in the table, subtract the expected frequency for that cell from the observed frequency. --Square the quantity. --Divide the squared difference by the expected frequency.

Codebook Construction

-Codebook - the document used in data processing and analysis that tells the location of different data items in a data file. --The codebook also identifies the locations of data items and the meaning of the codes used. -Purposes of the Codebook: 1. Primary guide in the coking processes 2. Guide for locating variables

Continuous and Discrete Variables

-Continuous Variable: a variable whose attributes form a steady progression, such as age or income. -Discrete Variable: a variable whose attributes are separate from one another or discontinuous, such as gender or religious affiliation.

LOOK UP

-Description of subsets of cases, subjects or respondents. (table 14-4 from 423 and table 14-5 from page 423) -"Collapsing" Response Categories (table 14-6 from page 424 and table 14-7 from 424) -Handling "Don't Knows" (table 14-7 from 424 and table 14-8 from 424)

Organizing a Review of the Literature

-Determine keywords (a key concept or population) --Practice: Identify keywords if you were interested in criminal behavior among female college students. --Practice: Identify keywords if you were interested in cohabitation among gay and lesbian couples. -Conduct a search --Library of Congress, school library, online search engine --Snowball Search

Constructing a Bivariate Table

-Determine logical direction of relationship (independent variable and dependent variable). -Percentage down versus percentage across.

Citing Internet Materials

-Elements of a Proper Citation: -URL - web address (uniform/universal resources locator) -Date and time when site was accessed -Author and title, if available -Publishing information, if available -Location in print form, if available

Qualitative Evaluations

-Example: Bart and O'Brien study of ways to stop rape (1985) -Example: Steel study of programs aimed at pregnant drug users

Discovering Patterns

-Frequencies -Magnitudes -Structures -Processes -Causes -Consequences

Some Useful Websites

-General Social Survey -U.S. Bureau of the Census -USA Statistics in Brief -Statistical Resources on the Web, University of Michigan -Social Sciences -Virtual Library -Yahoo Social Sciences

Reading a Bivariate Table

-If the table is percentaged down, read across. -If the table is percentaged across, read down.

Writing Social Research: Study Design and Execution

-Include the population, the sampling frame, the sampling method, the sample size, the data collection method, the completion rate, and the methods of data processing and analysis.

The Elaboration Paradigm

-Is the test variable antecedent (prior to in time) or intervening to the other two variables?

Regression Analysis: Linear Regression Analysis Multiple Regression Analysis

-Linear Regression Analysis - a form of statistical analysis that seeks the equation for the straight line that best describes the relationship between two ratio variables. -Multiple Regression Analysis - a form of statistical analysis that seeks the equation representing the impact of two or more independent variables on a single dependent variable.

Central Tendency

-Mean - an average computed by summing the values of several observations and dividing by the number of observations. -Mode- an average representing the most frequently observed value or attribute. -Median - an average representing the value of the "middle" case in a rank-ordered set of observations.

t-Test

-Measure for judging the statistical significance of differences in group means. Logic: --The value of t will increase with the size of the differences between means. --The value of t will also increase with the size of the sample involved. --The value of t will be larger when variations of values within each group are smaller.

Data Reduction

-Much scientific analysis involves the reduction of data from unmanageable details to manageable summaries

Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative Research

-Numerical testing can often verify the findings of in-depth, qualitative studies.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) -One-Way Analysis of Variance -Two-Way Analysis of Variance

-One-Way Analysis of Variance - a bivariate analysis that seeks to determine which groups on the independent variable differ from each other in terms of some dependent variable. -Two-Way Analysis of Variance - a multivariate technique which permits the simultaneous examination of more than two variables.

Coding: Creating Codes

-Open Coding - the initial classification and labeling of concepts in qualitative data analysis. -Axial coding - a reanalysis of the results of open coding in the GTM, aimed at identifying the important, general concepts. -Selective coding - in GTM, this builds on the results of open coding and axial coding to identify the central concept that organizes the other concepts that have been identified in a body of textual materials.

Multiple Regression: -Partial Regression Analysis -Curvilinear Regression Analysis

-Partial Regression Analysis - a form of regression analysis in which the effects of one or more variables are held constant, similar to the logic of the elaboration model. -Curvilinear Regression Analysis - a form of regression analysis that allows relationships among variables to be expressed with curved geometric lines instead of straight ones.

Interval and Ratio Variables

-Pearson's product-moment correlation (r)

Review Question For each variable listed below, determine whether it is discrete or continuous. -Political party (republican, independent, democrat, other) -Opinions on same-sex marriage (approve, disapprove) -Income (measured in dollars and cents) -Educational attainment (measured in years)

-Political party (republican, independent, democrat, other) → Discrete -Opinions on same-sex marriage (approve, disapprove) → Discrete -Income (measured in dollars and cents) → Continuous -Educational attainment (measured in years) → Discrete

Writing Social Research: Going Public

-Presenting at state, regional, and national association meetings -Publication in scholarly journals --Peer-review process

Guidelines for Reporting Analyses

-Provide maximum data without being cluttered -For quantitative data, presenting data such that the reader can re-compute them -Describe all aspects of quantitative analysis -Provide details -Integrate supporting materials -Draw explicit conclusions -Point out qualifications -Write clearly

Detail versus Manageability

-Provide reader with fullest degree of detail, balanced with presenting data in a manageable form

Writing Social Research: Organization of the Report

-Purpose and Overview --Provide a brief statement of the purpose of the study and the main findings (in a journal article, this is the abstract) -Review of the Literature --Fit your research into the context of existing scientific knowledge -Avoiding Plagiarism --Plagiarism: presenting someone else's words or thoughts as though they were your own, constituting intellectual theft Ground rules for avoiding plagiarism: 1. Do not use another writer's exact words without using quotation marks and giving a complete citation. 2. Do not edit or paraphrase another's words and present the revised version as your own. 3. Do not present another's ideas as your own, even if you use totally different words to express those ideas.

Computer Software for Qualitative Data Analysis: QDA Programs

-Qualitative Data Analysis --Programs available for download: AnSWR Atlas.ti Ethno Ethnograph HyperResearch HyperTranscribe MAXQDA -Example: Leviticus as seen through Qualrus -Example: FBI data on homicides committed in the United States -Example: Red and blue states in the 2012 Presidential election

Reading Journals versus Books

-Reading a Journal Article --Read the Abstract: a summary of a research article. The abstract usually begins the article and states the purpose of the research, the methods used, and the major findings. --Skim the article, noting section headings and tables and graphs --Read the article in its entirety --Review the article -Reading a Book --Research Monograph - a book-length research report, either published or unpublished. --Read the preface or introduction --Read the book in its entirety

Linear Regression

-Regression Line: Y' = a + b X -The "a" is the y-intercept, where the regression line crosses the y-axis. -The "b" is the slope, the change in Y for every 1-unit change in X. -X is the independent variable. -Y' is the predicted value of the dependent variable. -Unexplained Variation E-xplained Variation

Quantification of Data: Data Entry

-Researchers need to convert data into a machine-readable format, so that computers can read and manipulate the data.

Writing Social Research: Summary and Conclusions

-Review significant findings in the context of the larger project and existing scientific research, review shortcomings and make suggesting for future research

Ethics and Evaluation Research

-Sometimes the social interventions being assessed in evaluation research themselves raise ethical issues. -Evaluation research may entail added pressure to produce specific results, as desired by interested parties. -Fraudulent research results in an evaluation study can have severer consequences than consequences produced by other types of research.

Formulating the Problem: Issues of Measurement

-Specifying Outcomes -Measuring Experimental Contexts -Specifying Interventions -Specifying the Population -New versus Existing Measures -Operationalization Success/Failure

Tests of Statistical Significance: -Statistical Significance -Tests of Statistical Significance

-Statistical Significance - a general term referring to the likelihood that the relationship observed in a sample could be attributed to sampling error alone. -Tests of Statistical Significance - a class of statistical computations that indicate the likelihood that the relationship observed between variables in a sample can be attributed to sampling error alone.

Refinements to the Paradigm: Suppressor Variable and Distorter Variable

-Suppressor Variable: in the elaboration model, a test (control) variable that prevents a genuine relationship from appearing at the zero-order level. -Distorter Variable: in the elaboration model, a test (control) variable that reverses the direction of a zero-order relationship.

Writing Social Research: Analysis and Interpretation

-The presentation, manipulation and interpretation of data should be integrated together

Ethics and Qualitative Data Analysis

-The subjective element in qualitative data analysis provides ad added challenge to avoiding bias in the interpretation of data. -Since the qualitative data analyst will know the identity of subjects, protecting their privacy requires special care.

Review Question A researcher studying income inequality summarizes the relationship with the following regression equation. X is the number of years of education, and Y is the personal income in dollars. Y' = 500 + 2500X Interpret the value of a (the y-intercept) and b (slope).

-The y-intercept of 500 tells us that a respondent with zero years of education is predicted to earn $500. -The slope of 2500 tells us that for every additional year of education a respondent will earn on average an additional $2,500.

Some Words of Caution

-There are no objective tests of substantive significance (only objective significance). -Statistical significance is only appropriate for samples, and not for whole populations. -Tests of significance are based on the same sampling assumptions used to compute confidence intervals.

Inferential Statistics

-Type I Error - incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis. -Type II Error - incorrect acceptance of the null hypothesis.

Ethics and Quantitative Data Analysis

-Unbiased analysis and reporting is as much an ethical concern in quantitative analysis as in the case of qualitative analysis. -Subjects' privacy must be protected in quantitative data analysis and reporting

Writing Social Research: General Guidelines

-Use proper grammar and spelling -Use a style guide (such as The Elements of Style) -Understand functions of scientific reporting: --A report should communicate a body of specific data and ideas. --A report should contribute to the general body of scientific knowledge. --A report should stimulate and direct further inquiry.

Evaluating the Quality of Qualitative Research

-Validity -Reliability

Sociological Diagnostics

-What's the relationship between gender and hourly income? -What else could explain gender differences in hourly income? (table from 15-10 from page 447)

Use of Research Results

-Why evaluation research results are not always put into practice: -Implications may not be presented in a way that is understandable to the non-researcher. -Results may contradict deeply held beliefs. -Researchers may have a vested interest in the results. -Example: The Sabido Methodology -Example: Preventing Domestic Violence -Example: Rape Reform Legislation

Factor Analysis

-a complex algebraic method for determining the general dimensions or factors that exist within a set of concrete observations.

Constant comparative method

-a component of the Grounded Theory Method in which observations are compared with one another and with the evolving inductive theory.

Distributions: Frequency Distributions

-a description of the number of times the various attributes of a variable are observed in a sample.

Path Analysis

-a form of multivariate analysis in which the causal relationships among variables are presented in a graphic format.

Multiple Regression

-a form of statistical analysis that seeks the equation representing the impact of two or more independent variables on a single dependent variable. -Regression Line: Y' = a + b1 X1 + b2 X2 + b3 X3 -The "a" is the y-intercept, where the regression line crosses the y-axis. -The "bi" is the slope, the change in Y for every 1-unit change in Xi. -Xi is the independent variable. -Y' is the predicted value of the dependent variable. -Regression Line: Y = a + b1 X1 + b2 X2 + b3 X3 + e --e is the residual or error.

Contingency Table

-a format for presenting the relationship among variables as percentage distributions.

Ex Post Facto Hypothesis

-a hypothesis created after confirming data have already been collected. It is a meaningless construct because there is no way for it to be disconfirmed.

Measures of Association: Proportionate Reduction of Error (PRE)

-a logical model for assessing the strength of a relationship by asking how much knowing values on one variable would reduce our errors in guessing values on another variable.

Standard Deviation

-a measure of dispersion around the mean, calculated so that approximately 68 percent of the cases will lie within plus or minus one standard deviation from the mean, 95 percent within two, and 99.9 percent within three standard deviations.

Regression Analysis

-a method of data analysis in which the relationships among variables are represented in the form of an equation, called a regression equation

Conversation Analysis (CA)

-a meticulous analysis of the details of conversation, based on a complete transcript that includes pauses, hems and haws. --Fundamental Assumptions: 1. Conversation is a socially constructed activity. 2. Conversations must be understood contextually. 3. Conversational analysis aims to understand the structure and meaning of conversation through excruciatingly accurate transcripts of conversations.

Odds-Ratio Analysis

-a statistical technique for expressing the relationship between variables by comparing the odds of different occurrences

Interpretation

-a technical term used in connection with the elaboration mode. It represents the research outcome in which a control (or test) variable is discovered to be the mediating factor through which an independent variable has its effect on a dependent variable

Specification

-a technical term used in connection with the elaboration model, representing the elaboration outcome in which an initially observed relationship between two variables is replicated among some subgroups created by the control (or test) variable but not among others.

Replication

-a technical terms used in connection with the elaboration model, referring to the elaboration outcome in which the initially observed relationship between two variables persists when a control (or test) variable is held constant, thereby supporting the idea that the original relationship is genuine.

Test Variable

-a variable that is held constant in an attempt to clarify further the relationship between two other variables. Test variables are also called control variables.

Central Tendency: Average

-an ambiguous term generally suggesting typical or normal - a central tendency (examples: mean, median, mode).

Time-Series Analysis

-an analysis of changes in a variable over time.

Discovering Patterns: Cross-case analysis

-an analysis that involves an examination of more than one case; this can be either a variable-oriented or case-oriented analysis. -Variable-oriented analysis - an analysis that describes and/or explains a particular variable. -Case-oriented analysis - an analysis that aims to understand a particular case or several cases by looking closely at the details of each.

Explanation

-an elaboration model outcome in which the original relationship between two variables is revealed to have been spurious, because the relationship disappears when an antecedent test variable is introduced.

Grounded Theory Method (GTM)

-an inductive approach to research in which theories are generated solely from an examination of data rather than being derived deductively.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

-analytic technique in which researchers map quantitative data that describe geographic units for a graphic display.

Log-Linear Models

-data analysis technique based on specifying models that describe the interrelationships among variables and then comparing expected and observed table-cell frequencies.

Logistical Problems

-getting subjects to do what they are supposed to do. -Evaluation research occurs within the context of real life. -Example: Motivating sailors -Example: Administrative control

Level of Significance

-in the context of tests of statistical significance, the degree of likelihood that an observed, empirical relationship could be attributed to sampling error. --A relationship is significant at the .05 level if the likelihood of its being only a function of sampling error is no greater than 5 out of 100.

Zero-Order Relationship

-in the elaboration model, this is the original relationship between two variables, with no test variable controlled for.

Partial Relationship

-in the elaboration model, this is the relationship between two variables when examined in a subset of cases defined by a third variable.

Social indicators

-measurements that reflect the quality or nature of social life. Social indicators are often monitored to determine the nature of social change in a society. -Example: The Death Penalty and Deterrence -Example: Computer Simulation

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

-method of analysis in which cases under study are combined into groups representing an independent variable, and the extent to which the groups differ from one another is analyzed in terms of some dependent variable. Then, the extent to which the groups differ is compared with the standard of random distribution.

Discriminant Analysis

-method of analysis similar to multiple regression, except that the dependent variable can be nominal.

Quasi-Experimental Designs

-nonrigorous inquiries somewhat resembling controlled experiments but lacking key elements such as pre- and post-testing and/or control groups

Descriptive Statistics

-statistical computations describing either the characteristics of a sample or the relationship among variables in a sample

Univariate Analysis

-the analysis of a single variable, for purposes of description (examples: frequency distribution, averages, and measures of dispersion). -Example: Gender --The number of men in a sample/population and the number of women in a sample/population

Bivariate Analysis

-the analysis of two variables simultaneously, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them.

Inferential Statistics

-the body of statistical computations relevant to making inferences from findings based on sample observations to some larger population.

Dispersion

-the distribution of values around some central value, such as an average

Concept Mapping

-the graphic display of concepts and their interrelations, useful in the formulation of theory

Quantification Analysis

-the numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect.

Semiotics

-the study of signs and the meanings associated with them, "the science of signs." -What is the meaning of: ...a blue ribbon? ..."say cheese"? ...a cross? ...a horseshoe?

Univariate Inferences: Nonsampling Error

-those imperfections of data quality that are a result of factors other than sampling error. -Examples include misunderstandings of questions by respondents and erroneous recordings by interviewers and coders.

Memoing

-writing memos that become part of the data for analysis in qualitative research such as grounded theory. Memos may describe and define concepts, deal with methodologies issues, or offer initial theoretical formulations. --Code Notes --Theoretical Notes --Operational Notes

Guidelines for Presentation of Tables

1. A table should have a heading or title that describes what is contained in the table. 2. Original content should be clearly presented. 3. The attributes of each variable should be clearly indicated. 4. The base on which percentage are computed should be indicated. 5. Missing data should be indicated in the table.

The Logic of Statistical Significance

1. Assumptions regarding the independence of two variables in the population study. 2. Assumptions regarding the representativeness of samples selected through conventional probability-sampling procedures. 3. The observed joint distribution of sample elements in terms of the two variables

Four Stages of Constant Comparative Method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967):

1. Comparing incident application to each category 2. Integrating categories and their properties 3. Delimiting the theory 4. Writing theory

Example: Gender and attitudes toward sexual equality

1. Divide the cases by gender. 2. Describe each gender subgroup in terms of approval or disapproval of sexual equality. 3. Compare the gender subgroups in terms of the percentages approving (or disapproving) sexual equality.

Questions/Assessments for Evaluating Qualitative Research

1. How credible are the findings? 2. How has knowledge or understanding been extended by the research? 3. How well does the evaluation address its original aims and purpose? 4. How well is the scope for drawing wider inferences explained? 5. How clear is the basis of evaluative appraisal? 6. How defensible is the research design? 7. How well defended are the same design/target selection of cases/documents? 8. How well is the eventual sample composition and coverage described? 9. How well was the data collection carried out? 10. How well has the approach to, and formulation of, analysis been conveyed? 11. How well are the contexts of data sources retained and portrayed? 12. How well has diversity of perspective and content been explored? 13. How well has detail, depth, and complexity of the data been conveyed? 14. How clear are the links between data, interpretation, and conclusions? 15. How clear and coherent is the reporting? 16. How clear are the assumptions/theoretical perspectives/values that have shaped the form and output of the evaluation? 17. What evidence is there of attention to ethical issues? 18. How adequately has the research process been documented?

Constructing and Reading Bivariate Tables

1. The cases are divided into groups according to the attributes of the independent variable. 2. Each of these subgroups is then described in terms of attributes of the dependent variable. 3. Finally, the table is read by comparing the independent variable subgroups with one another in terms of a given attribute of the dependent variable.

Quantification of Data: Developing Code Categories

1. Use well-developed coding scheme. 2. Generate codes from your data.

Evaluating the Quality of Internet Materials

1. Who/what is the author of the website? 2. Is the site advocating a particular point of view? 3. Does the website give accurate and complete references? 4. Are the data up-to-date? 5. Are the data official? 6. Is it a university research site? 7. Do the data seem consistent with data from other sites?

Percentaging a table

14.10 from pg 427

A research design that involves measurements made over some period may be defined as A. time series designs. B. quasi experiments. C. multiple time series designs.

ANSWER: A. A research design that involves measurements made over some period may be defined as time series designs.

_____ is a form of applied research. A. Evaluation B. Experimentation C. Interviewing D. Field research

ANSWER: A. Evaluation is a form of applied research.

Evaluation researchers encounter more logistical problems than other researchers because evaluation research A. occurs in the context of real life. B. takes longer. C. is more costly. D. has more measurement problems. E. examines more variables.

ANSWER: A. Evaluation researchers encounter more logistical problems than other researchers because evaluation research occurs in the context of real life.

_____ is a form of fallacious reasoning. A. Ex post facto hypothesizing B. Distorted reasoning C. Disconfirmation

ANSWER: A. Ex post facto hypothesizing is a form of fallacious reasoning.

If the variables being related are ordinal, _____ is an appropriate measures of association. A. Gamma B. Lambda C. Rho D. Pearson's product-moment correlation

ANSWER: A. If the variable being related are ordinal, Gamma is an appropriate measures of association.

In _____ coding, codes are suggested by the research's examination. A. open B. axial C. selective

ANSWER: A. In open coding, codes are suggested by the researcher's examination

The logic of multivariate relationships is that the _____ variable affects the _____ variable, which in turn affects the _____ variable. A. independent; intervening; dependent B. intervening; independent; dependent C. dependent; intervening; independent

ANSWER: A. The logic of multivariate relationships is that the independent variable affects the intervening variable, which in turn affects the dependent variable.

To conduct a quantitative analysis, researchers often must engage in a _____ after the data have been collected. A. coding process B. case-oriented analysis C. experimental analysis D. field research study

ANSWER: A. To conduct a quantitative analysis, researchers often must engage in a coding process after the data have been collected

_____ is an analysis that describes and/or explains a particular variable. A. Variable-oriented analysis B. Case-oriented analysis C. Experimentation D. Field research

ANSWER: A. Variable-oriented analysis is an analysis that describes and/or explains a particular variable.

A _____ is a document that describes the locations of variables and lists the assignments of codes to the attributes composing those variables. A. cross-case analysis B. codebook C. constant comparative method D. monitoring study

ANSWER: B. A codebook is a document that describes the locations of variables and lists the assignments of codes to the attributes composing those variables.

A _____ variable is a test variable that reverses the direction of a zero-order relationship. A. suppressor B. distorter C. ex post facto

ANSWER: B. A distorter variable is a test variable that reverses the direction of a zero-order relationship.

Besides making measurements relevant to the outcomes of a program, research must measure the _____. A. primary cause B. program intervention C. tertiary effect D. all of the above E. none of the above

ANSWER: B. Besides making measurements relevant to the outcomes of a program, research must measure the program intervention.

_____ is an analysis that aims to understand a particular case of several cases by looking closely at the details of each. A. Variable-oriented analysis B. Case-oriented analysis C. Experimentation D. Field research

ANSWER: B. Case-oriented analysis is an analysis that aims to understand a particular case of several cases by looking closely at the details of each

_____ is an inductive approach to research in which theories are generated solely from an examination of data rather than being derived deductively. A. Cross-case analysis B. Grounded Theory Method C. Constant comparative method D. Monitoring studies

ANSWER: B. Grounded Theory Method is an inductive approach to research in which theories are generated solely from an examination of data rather than being derived deductively.

_____ are statistical measures used for making inferences from findings based on sample observations to a larger population. A. Descriptive statistics B. Inferential statistics C. both of the above D. none of the above

ANSWER: B. Inferential statistic are statistical measures used for making inferences from findings based on sample observations to a larger population

_____ aim to determine the existence and extent of problems. A. Longitudinal studies B. Needs assessment studies C. Cost-benefit studies D. Monitoring studies

ANSWER: B. Needs assessment studies aim to determine the existence and extent of problems.

Professor Yee wants to do an evaluation study of the effects of a patient education program on patient anxiety. He uses one wing in a hospital for the experiment and compares the results with a similar group of patients in a similar wing in another hospital. Which design would be best? A. classical B. nonequivalent control group C. time-series D. posttest-only control group design

ANSWER: B. Professor Yee wants to do an evaluation study of the effects of a patient education program on patient anxiety. He uses one wing in a hospital for the experiment and compares the results with a similar group of patients in a similar wing in another hospital. The nonequivalent control group design would be best.

_____ are distinguished from "true" experiments primarily by the lack of random assignment of subjects to an experimental and a control group. A. Time series designs B. Quasi experiments C. Multiple time series designs

ANSWER: B. Quasi experiments are distinguished from "true" experiments primarily by the lack of a random assignment of subjects to an experimental and a control group.

_____ is a technical term used in connection with the elaboration model, referring to the elaboration outcome in which the initially observed relationship between two variables persists when a control variable is held constant. A. Explanation B. Replication C. Specification D. Interpretation

ANSWER: B. Replication is a technical term used in connection with the elaboration model, referring to the elaboration outcome in which the initially observed relationship between two variables persists when a control variable is held constant.

_____ is commonly defined as the science of signs and has to do with symbols and meanings. A. Kinesics B. Semiotics C. Graphology D. Monitoring

ANSWER: B. Semiotics is commonly defined as the science of signs and has to do with symbols and meanings

_____ indicate the likelihood that the relationship observed between variables in a sample can be attributed to sampling error only. A. Ex post facto hypothesizing B. Tests of statistical significance C. Disconfirmation

ANSWER: B. Tests of statistical significance indicate the likelihood that the relationship observed between variables in a sample can be attributed to sampling error only.

The _____ is an average computed by summing the values of several observations and divided by the number of observations. A. frequency B. mean C. median D. mode

ANSWER: B. The mean is an average computed by summing the values of several observations and divided by the number of observations.

A key variable for evaluation researchers is to measure the _____. A. independent variable B. dependent variable C. response variable D. none of the above

ANSWER: C. A key variable for evaluation researchers is to measure the response variable

Which of the following is a variable that is held constant in an attempt to clarify the relationship between two other variables? A. a coding scheme B. a causal relationship C. a test variable

ANSWER: C. A test variable is a variable that is held constant in an attempt to clarify the relationship between two other variables

A _____ analysis represents changes in a variable over time. A. regression B. bivariate C. time-series D. log-linear

ANSWER: C. A time-series analysis represents changes in a variable over time.

_____ is a component of the GTM in which observations are compared with one another and with the evolving inductive theory. A. Cross-case analysis B. Grounded Theory Method C. Constant comparative method D. Monitoring studies

ANSWER: C. Constant comparative method is a component of the GTM in which observations are compared with one another and with the evolving inductive theory.

_____ determine whether the results of a program can be justified by its expense. A. Longitudinal studies B. Needs assessment studies C. Cost-benefit studies D. Monitoring studies

ANSWER: C. Cost-benefit studies determine whether the results of a program can be justified by its expense

Why has evaluation research grown in popularity? A. federal requirements demanding program evaluations B. the availability of research funds to fulfill federal requirements C. both of the above D. none of the above

ANSWER: C. Evaluation research has grown in popularity because of federal requirements demanding program evaluations, and the availability of research funds to fulfill federal requirements

Methods for examining social research data without converting them to numerical format are referred to as: A. feminist research B. quantitative research C. qualitative research

ANSWER: C. Methods for examining social research data without converting them to numerical format are referred to as qualitative research

Researchers use the elaboration model to understand the relationship between _____ variables through the simultaneous introduction of additional variables. A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

ANSWER: C. Researchers use the elaboration model to understand the relationship between 2 variables through the simultaneous introduction of additional variables.

_____ represents the elaboration outcome in which an initially observed relationship is replicated among some subgroups created by the control variable but not among others. A. Explanation B. Replication C. Specification D. Interpretation

ANSWER: C. Specification represents the elaboration outcome in which an initially observed relationship is replicated among some subgroups created by the control variable but not among others.

Which of the following are basic approaches to the coding process? A. You can begin with a well developed coding scheme. B. You can generate codes from your data. C. both of the above D. none of the above

ANSWER: C. The following are basic approaches to the coding process: you can begin with a well developing coding scheme and/or you can generate codes from your data.

The process of converting data to numerical format is called _____. A. feminist research B. qualification C. quantification

ANSWER: C. The process of converting data to numerical format is called quantification.

Which of the following is(are) a way(s) a researcher may look for patterns in a particular research topic? A. frequencies B. magnitudes C. structures D. all of the above

ANSWER: D. A research may look for patterns in a particular research topic in the following ways: frequencies, magnitudes, and structures

If interval or ratio variables are being associated, one appropriate measure is _____. A. Gamma B. Lambda C. Rho D. Pearson's product-moment correlation

ANSWER: D. If interval or ratio variables are being associated, one appropriate measure is Pearson's product-moment correlation.

_____ provide a steady flow of information about something of interest. A. Longitudinal studies B. Needs assessment studies C. Cost-benefit studies D. Monitoring studies

ANSWER: D. Monitoring studies provide a steady flow of information about something of interest.

Which of the following describes the analysis of more than two variables? A. experimental designs B. quasi-experimental designs C. qualitative evaluations D. multivariate analysis

ANSWER: D. Multivariate analysis describes the analysis of more than two variables.

_____ is a causal model for understanding relationships among variables. A. Ex post facto hypothesizing B. Tests of statistical significance C. Disconfirmation D. Path analysis

ANSWER: D. Path analysis is a causal model for understanding relationships among variables

The key process in the analysis of qualitative social research is: A. predicting B. analyzing C. writing D. coding

ANSWER: D. The key process in the analysis of qualitative social research is coding.

Topics Appropriate for Evaluation Research

Appropriate topics are those with practical significance. Example: Consequences of liberalized marijuana laws Example: Effects of no-fault divorce laws Example: Impacts of "No Child Left Behind" program

Most original research is seen as a/n _____ of what has previously been learned. A. cause B. replacement C. extension

C

Univariate Inferences

Cautions about Making Inferences: 1. The sample must be drawn from the population about which inferences are being made. 2. The inferential statistics assume several things: (a) simple random sampling, (b) sampling with replacement, (c) 100 percent completion rate. 3. Inferential statistics are addressed to sampling error only, not nonsampling error.

In most journals, each article beings with a/n _____. A. table of contents B. index C. summary D. abstract

D

Review Question The biggest risk(s) you face in getting info from the web is(are): A. Bias B. Sloppiness C. Originality D. A and B E. All of the above

D

Review Question Which of the below is not a function of scientific reporting? A. Communicating a body of specific data and ideas B. Contributing to the general body of scientific knowledge C. Stimulating and directing further inquiry D. Challenging and dismissing competing ideas

D

Which of the following questions might you ask when evaluating data on websites? A. Who is the author of the website? B. Is the site advocating for a particular point of view? C. Does the website give complete references? D. all of the above E. none of the above

D

Which of the following should be included in a research report? A. purpose and overview B. review of the literature C. analysis and interpretation D. all of the above E. none of the above

D

Review Question True or False: Evaluation research requires quantitative analysis of collected information.

False: Evaluation research can use both qualitative and quantitative analyses of collected information.

Ordinal Variables

Gamma (γ) =(same - opposite)/ (same + opposite)

Nominal Variables

Lambda (λ)

Review Question ________ refers to getting research subjects to do what they're supposed to do.

Logistics

Review Question A researcher studying attitudes toward environmental regulations asks respondents a set of twenty different questions on the topic. What technique should the researcher use to uncover different dimensions or patterns among the variables? A. Analysis of Variance B. Discriminant Analysis C. Odds-Ratio Analysis D. Factor Analysis

Review Question The correct answer is D. Factor analysis would permit the researcher to determine if there is an underlying factor or dimension structure to the questions.

Review Question Which one of the below is not one of the measurement issues in evaluation research? A. Defining the units of analysis B. Measuring the outcome C. Measuring the stimulus or intervention D. Defining success E. Defining failure

The correct answer is A.

Review Question Which of the following statements is more accurate? A. Code the data so that a great deal of detail is maintained. B. Code the data into relatively few, gross categories.

The correct answer is A. You can always combine categories during an analysis, but if you have coded to fewer categories before analysis, you can never go back and recreate the original detail.

Review Question A researcher wants to determine if curfews for teenage drivers reduce accidents. This is an example of ______ research A. needs-assessment B. cost-benefit C. outcomes assessment D. survey

The correct answer is C.

Review Question Which of the below would not be a type of social indicators research? A. Comparing murder rates across states with and without the death penalty B. Comparing infant mortality rates across countries with and without nationalized health care C. Comparing automobile accident injury rates before and after passage of a seatbelt law D. Comparing a student's test grades across different classes in a semester

The correct answer is D.

Evaluating Research Reports

Theoretical Orientations Research Design Measurement Sampling Experiments Survey Questions Field Research Content Analysis Analyzing Existing Statistics Comparative and Historical Research Evaluation Research Data Analysis Reporting

Quasi-Experimental Designs: Nonequivalent Control Groups

a control group that is similar to the experimental group but is not created by the random assignment of subjects.

Quasi-Experimental Designs: Time-Series Designs

a research design that involves measurement made over some period

Review Question Instead of comparing the experiences of different states in legalizing same-sex marriage, a researcher decides to focus on the experience of a single state, Iowa. This is an example of __________.

case-oriented analysis.

Review Question The key process in the analysis of qualitative social research data is ________.

coding

Review Question Researchers sometimes use the term ________ when discussing the validity of qualitative data or measures.

credibility

Review Question Where univariate analyses are more concerned with ________ statements, bivariate and multivariate analyses are primarily aimed at ________ statements

descriptive, explanatory

Experimental Designs

many of the experimental designs discussed previously in Chapter 8 can be used in evaluation research. Including: -Classical experimental method -One-Shot case studies -One-group pretest-posttest designs -Static-group comparisons -Posttest-only control group designs

Evaluation Research

research undertaken for the purpose of determining the impact of some social intervention, such as a program aimed at solving a social problem.

Review Question In conducting a literature search, you should use a technique akin to ________ sampling.

snowball

Needs assessment studies

studies that aim to determine the existence and extent of problems, typically among a segment of the population

Cost-Benefit Studies

studies that determine whether the results of a program can be justified by its expense (both financial and other).

Monitoring Studies

studies that provide a steady flow of information about something of interest, such as crime rates or the outbreak of an epidemic.

Program Evaluation Studies

the determination of whether a social intervention is producing the intended result. Also called Outcome Assessment Studies

Qualitative analysis

the non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationship.

Quasi-Experimental Designs: Multiple Time-Series Designs

the use of more than one set of data that were collected over time, so that comparisons can be made.