Research Methods

Suppose a research completed a correlational analysis on two variables and found a Pearson's r equal to zero. This finding would indicate that:

There is no relationship between the two variables.

A predictor variable is a measured variable that can be used to predict a score another measured variable, the outcome variable.

True

If the output for a statistical test contains a p value that is less than or equal to alpha, the test is significant and the null hypothesis can be rejected.

True

In a correlational study a variable is not manipulated ; thus, a causal relationship is difficult to test.

True

Surveys can be used to answer causal research questions

True

Surveys can be used to answer descriptive research questions.

True

Surveys can be used to answer predictive research questions.

True

The magnitude of a correlation can range from -1 to +1.

True

If we reject the null hypothesis when it's really true, we have made a

Type I error.

A variable that affects the results of the study, but is not a variable of interest in the study is called a(n) _____________ variable.

confounding

Theory-driven hypotheses rely on _______ reasoning, whereas data-driven hypotheses rely on _______ reasoning.

deductive; inductive

________ statistics summarize a distribution, while _______ statistics provide a test of the hypothesis.

descriptive; inferential

When entering data into SPSS for a within-subjects study, one should always

enter data for each condition in a different column.

A cohort-sequential design handles some of the sources of bias present in other developmental designs by

examining age effects both longitudinally and cross-sectionally.

The testability canon of the scientific method states that

explanations of phenomena should be able to be falsified if they are incorrect.

A good survey item asks about as many different behaviors as possible in order to have as few items as possible on the survey

False

A true correlational study has at least one independent variable and includes random assignment to groups.

False

If many individuals respond the same way to items on a survey, this indicates good validity for the survey.

False

Providing descriptive anchors for a numerical rating scale is not recommended for surveys, because they may bias the responses.

False

The APA code was the first set of guidelines ever developed for research with human participants.

False

In what section of a published journal article will you find graphs or tables of the summary data?

Results

The ________ measure of variability indicates the average difference between the scores of a distribution and the mean of a distribution.

Standard Deviation

According to ethical guidelines, psychological studies can never involve deception.

false

An inferential test allows a researcher to certain that there is or is not an effect of an independent variable.

false

An interaction effect can be tested in all experiments.

false

Correlational studies can provide good tests of causal research questions.

false

Data from small n designs typically involve mean data analyses that are used in other experimental designs.

false

Developmental psychologists never conduct experiments, because age cannot be manipulated.

false

Quasi-experiments are the most useful designs for answering causal research questions.

false

The output from statistical tests conducted with SPSS will always indicate if the test is significant.

false

Debriefing means

fully explaining the purpose of the study (including any deception that may have been involved) and providing an opportunity for participants to ask questions about the study.

A nonequivalent pretest-posttest design contains a control group that

has not been randomly assigned.

Observing behaviors as they occur in an individual's natural environment uses the __________ observation technique.

naturalistic

When a variable that is not of interest in a study may explain the results of a study this is called

the third variable problem.

The Solomon four-group design is a pretest-posttest design where

there are two experimental and control groups, one that takes the pretest and one that does not take the pretest.

Correlational studies are designed to examine relationships between measured variables.

true

In a factorial design, there is/are at least ______ independent variable(s).

two

Use the following description to answer the remaining questions. An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Subjects aged 60 and older were recruited for the study. All of the subjects were presented with the same study list. Then half of the subjects were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the subjects were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all subjects were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. The alternative hypothesis in this study is

two-tailed.

The method of gaining knowledge that is most likely to yield accurate information is

observation.

The empiricism canon of the scientific method states that new knowledge is gained from

observations

In a correlational study, the variable that is predicted by the predictor variable is called the ___________ variable.

outcome

The determinism canon of the scientific method states:

phenomena in the world (an human behaviors) occur naturally and have identifiable causes.

The _________ is the group of individuals a researcher wants to learn about in a study, whereas the _______ is the groups of individuals tested in a study.

population, sample

Suppose that a researcher found that as introversion (as measured on a standardized questionnaire) of participants goes up, amount of time spent alone increases. This finding indicates a

positive relationship

In a scatterplot, the __________ variable is typically plotted on the x-axis, whereas the ________ variable is typically plotted on the y-axis.

predictor; outcome

The development and validation of surveys is called

psychometrics.

The difference between an independent variable and a quasi-independent variable is that the quasi-independent variable lacks

random assignment.

Pretest-posttest designs are quasi-experiments when they do not contain a

randomly assigned control group.

When a psychologist refers to the term "basic research," he or she means

research conducted with the goal of understanding fundamental prcesses of phenomena

The difference in scores that occurs when we test a sample drawn out of the population is

sampling error.

Use the following description to answer the remaining questions. An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Subjects aged 60 and older were recruited for the study. All of the subjects were presented with the same study list. Then half of the subjects were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the subjects were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all subjects were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. What is the operational definition of exercise in this study?

score on the recognition test

A risk-benefit analysis involves

showing that the benefits of a study outweigh the risks.

Which of the following sampling techniques involves choosing individuals from the population at random where each individual has an equal chance of being selected?

simple random sample

When individuals provide survey responses that represent them in the most positive way, even if the responses are untrue, this is called

social desirability bias.

A confederate is

someone who is part of the study, but acts as if they are a participant.

Which of the following sampling techniques involves choosing individuals from the population at random where the proportions of members of different groups are the same in the population and the sample?

stratified random sample

The difference between an interrupted time series design and an equivalent time series design is that the interrupted time series design includes a _______________ event, while a non-interrupted time series design includes a ________________ treatment.

"naturally"-occurring/researcher-implemented

Longitudinal designs are more likely to be affected by _______ as a source of bias than are cross-sectional designs.

(a) and (b)

Which of the following is a good operational definition for "hunger"?

(a) and (c) only

______ research investigates fundamental aspects of behavior, whereas _______ research investigates solutions for real-world problems.

Basic; applied

Which of the following might be a reason a researcher would use a quasi-experiment?

Both (b) and (c)

_______ response scales provide response categories that respondents choose from, whereas ________ response scales allow respondents to respond to items in any way they wish.

Closed-ended, open-ended

_________ can be used to counter group differences.

Randomization

Which of the following describes a quota sample?

60% of the population is left-handed so 60% of the participants chosen are also left-handed

Use the following description to answer the remaining questions. An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Subjects aged 60 and older were recruited for the study. All of the subjects were presented with the same study list. Then half of the subjects were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the subjects were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all subjects were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. Based on the results reported above and an alpha level of .05, which of the following p values is possible for the test comparing the groups in this study?

. 008

A(n) _______ test is often used to analyze data in a factorial design.

ANOVA

Which of the following lists sections of an APA style article in the correct order of appearance in the article?

Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion

Suppose that a researcher found that as introversion (as measured on a standardized questionnaire) of participants goes up, number of social activities attended per week decreases. Which of the following relationships can explain this finding

All of the above.

_________ can be used to counter order effects.

Counterbalancing

Which of the following is a predictive research question?

Do ACT (or SAT) scores indicate future academic performance?

Which of the following would help control for bias in a pretest-posttest design?

Including a control group that does not receive the treatment

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Subjects aged 60 and older were recruited for the study. All of the subjects were presented with the same study list. Then half of the subjects were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the subjects were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all subjects were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. What is the operational definition of exercise in this study?

NOT: number of Sudoku puzzles completed MAYBE: score on the recognition test

A researcher proposes a study and wants to recruit subjects from health care clinics in Jamaica. The survey will be conducted by the U.S. researchers at the clinic. The nurses at the clinic will inform prospective subjects about the availably of the research, but will not consent the subjects nor perform any research procedures (even screening procedures). Are the nurses engaged in the research according to federal regulations?

No, they are not engaged because they are only informing the subjects and not consenting or performing any research procedures, or receiving or sharing any private, identifiable information.

Which of the following activities constitutes engagement in research?

Obtaining informed consent and conducting research interviews.

Which of the following represents the correlational research design?

Participants take a handedness questionnaire with score indicating the degree of right- and left-handedness to look for a relationship between handedness score and time to complete a cognitive task.

What procedures must be described in an agreement called an "assurance of compliance" with OHRP?

Procedures in place that ensure that subjects will be protected in a manner commensurate with the Common Rule, including review by an independent committee comparable to an IRB.

A researcher conducted a correlational study to examine the relationship between high school GPA and extroversion. A group of high school students completed a measure of extroversion. The GPAs for these students was then obtained from their records. The appropriate statistical test to analyze the data in this study is

a Pearson r test.

A cohort/generation effect may occur when

a cross-sectional design is conducted.

A literature review is

a detailed review of past research in a topic area.

If a researcher wishes to predict the score on one measured variable from the score on another measured variable, the appropriate statistical test is

a linear regression.

A researcher was interested in the effect of anxiety on intelligence measurement. A group of 100 individuals were placed in an anxiety-provoking situation before being given an IQ test. The scores for this group were then compared to the IQ population mean of 100. The appropriate statistical test to analyze the data in this study is

a one-sample t-test.

An experiment was conducted to compare participant responses to two different social situations. All participants viewed a scene with two children playing cooperatively and a scene with two children arguing while playing. Participants responded to a questionnaire measuring anxiety after viewing each scene to determine if the type of scene viewed had an effect on anxiety scores. The appropriate statistical test to analyze the data in this study is

a paired/related samples t-test.

Use the following description to answer the remaining questions. An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Subjects aged 60 and older were recruited for the study. All of the subjects were presented with the same study list. Then half of the subjects were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the subjects were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all subjects were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. The independent variable in this study is _________, and the dependent variable is __________.

activity group; memory

Use the following description for questions (3) - (4). An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Participants aged 60 and older who responded to an ad in the local newspaper were recruited for the study. All of the participants were presented with the same study list. Then half of the participants were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the participants were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all participants were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. (3) What is the most likely population for this study?

all adults over age 60

An experiment is defined by

all of the above

Which of the following can help a researcher conduct a literature review?

all of the above

Which of the following is a source of bias in survey data?

all of the above

Which of the following sources of bias may be problematic in pretest-posttest designs?

all of the above

Which research method can surveys be used with to observe behavior?

all of the above

Independent variables can be manipulated according to

all of the above.

Small n designs are used when

all of the above.

A developmental psychologist conducted an experiment to examine the effect of type of text used on math performance across age groups. Fifth grade and college students studied age-appropriate math concepts using either a traditional hard copy book text or an e-text available on the web. Performance on a math test of the concepts studied was then measured for all students. The appropriate statistical test to analyze the data in this study is

an ANOVA.

A theory is

an explanation of a phenonema.

A quasi-experiment was conducted to compare men's and women's attitudes about extramarital affairs. Men and women who are married were recruited to complete a survey about their attitudes. The researchers then compared scores on the survey for men and women. The appropriate statistical test to analyze the data in this study is

an independent samples t-test.

If a study involves comparing two means from a between-subjects design, the appropriate statistical test is

an independent samples t-test.

Measuring intelligence using the score on an IQ test is an example of

an operational definition.

A psychologist investigating the research question "Which type of therapy most effectively reduces depressive behaviors?" is most likely conducting __________ research.

applied

Looking up records of behaviors that have already occurred uses the __________ observation technique.

archival

Deciding that it must be raining because the weather person said it would rain today is an example of which method of knowing?

authority

A psychologist investigating the research question "Which neurotransmitters affect depressive behaviors?" is most likely conducting __________ research.

basic

Studies with children generally require

both (a) and (c).

Correlational studies are not well-suited for answering _________ research questions.

causal

Does lack of sleep cause depression?" is an example of a ________ research question.

causal

A researcher who wants to test the relationship between nominal or ordinal variables should use a(n) ____________ test.

chi-square.

A Likert scale is an example of a(n) _______ response scale.

closed-ended

Which of the following sampling techniques involves choosing individuals from the population such that individuals are chosen from a pre-existing group?

cluster sample

Time-series designs are pretest-posttest designs that

compare a pattern of scores over time before and after the treatment.

In a Latin Square, the number of orders used is equal to the number of _________ in the experiment.

conditions

Suppose a psychologist developed a test to measure intelligence, but this test was poorly developed and really only measured how well people perform on standardized tests (in other words, it doesn't actually measure intelligence). This test would lack

construct validity.

The research design that allows researchers to answer descriptive and predictive questions about the relationship between different measured variables is a(n)

correlational study.

A strong, positive relationship between scores on a new survey and scores on a previously validated survey on the same topic indicates good

criterion-related validity.

A developmental psychologist compares standardized math test scores for 2nd, 5th, and 10th graders. The subjects are all tested at the same time; thus, different groups of subjects are tested, each group at a different age. This study utilizes a(n) ___________ design.

cross-sectional

When different observers of behavior record the behavior in a similar way, the measure is said to have good

inter-rater reliability.

When the effect of one independent variable depends on the levels of another independent variable, this is called a(n)

interaction effect

Simple effects tests are used to describe

interaction effects

Cronbach's alpha is a measure of the _________ of a survey.

internal consistency

Ruling out alternative explanations for results increases the _________ validity, whereas increasing the realism of the behaviors examined in a study increases the __________ validity.

internal, external

A study was done in Pueblo, CO to compare the pattern of heart attack rates across the year before and the year after a public smoking ban had been enacted. The researchers who conducted this study used a(n) __________ design.

interrupted time-series

Main effects compare _______ means and interaction effects compare _________ means.

level, condition

For the table of condition means below, which effects appear to be present? IV A Level 1 IVA Level 2 IV B Level 1 50 50 IV B Level 2 75 75 IV A Level 1 IV A Level 2 IVB Level 1 50 50 IV B Level 2 75 75

main effect of IV B only.

An independent variable that includes three different types of treatments is called a(n) ___________ variable.

multivalent

Asking individuals to rate how often each of 20 items related to depression symptoms occurs in their daily lives is an example of which observation technique?

survey observations

Asking individuals to complete a task under controlled conditions uses the __________ observation technique.

systematic

The first APA ethical code was based on

the Nuremberg code. P

The Solomon four-group design allows a researcher to measure

the effect of taking the pretest on the scores on the posttest

Research is said to have high levels of "external validity" when

the findings in the study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study

Use the following description for questions (3) - (4). An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that exercise affects memory in the elderly. Participants aged 60 and older who responded to an ad in the local newspaper were recruited for the study. All of the participants were presented with the same study list. Then half of the participants were asked to walk on a treadmill for 20 min, while the other half of the participants were asked to complete Sudoku puzzles for 20 min. Then all participants were given a recognition test for the items in the study list. The treadmill exercise group scored significantly lower on the recognition test than the Sudoku puzzle group. (4) Which sampling technique was used for this study?

volunteer sample

In a longitudinal design age is treated as a __________ variable, but age is treated as a ____________ variable in a cross-sectional design.

within-subjects / between-subjects

Order effects are particularly problematic for __________ designs, but group differences are a problematic in __________ designs.

within-subjects, between-subjects