Rhetorical Criticism/Theory

Humanism and Rhetoric in England: Ramus v Cicero

Began 15th century work of statesmen led by Sir Thomas More. Attracted by Epicurianism of Valla, imagines this with political science where country seeks pleasure as Platonic motion toward transcendence. With Erasmus seeing rhetoric's place with Italian humanists. Tudor dynasty took over, English humanism pressured to change as Italian Humanism did, and became province of courtier, scholars treated it as courtly accomplishment rather than political tool. RC education system dispossessed after Tudors, and favored humanist education as replacement. University limited to upper class, government became centralized, young aristocrats attended for occupational reasons. Scholasticism remained curriculum in 1600s, rhetoric subordinated. Subjects like history and poetry grouped under rhetoric. Texts showed how English could be shaped by classical concepts. Leonard Cox "The Arte or Craft of Rhetorique" (1530), Ciceronian and borrows from Melanchthon. Thomas Wilson's The Art of Rhetorique (1553) first, most influential English text, to discuss five parts of canon in detail--popularity linked with social climbers. Other sources reinforced identity a performance, version of sprezzatura. 16th century Ciceronian rhetorics focused on style, and helping English develop semantic and syntactic resources. Some may seem similar to Ramist texts, but different in that Ciceronian focused on figures/tropes but acknowledged these are only a part of rhetoric, where Ramist reduced style to merely figures and tropes and rhetoric to mere style and brief delivery. Ramist influence grew and rhetoric linked with poetry. Fraunce The Arcadian Retorike (1577) dichotomized and drew examples from poetry. Sir Philip Sydney Apology for Poetry (1583) encouraged Ramist link with poetry, good style is artless arts. Praises classics not imitators. Link with poetry not contradictory to Renaissance, still epistemic function. Ramist did encourage separating rhetoric and logic, Ramist took over England by 1700, shifting to empirical research. Howell links it to rise with modern science and Ong links it with rise of bourgeoisie and capitalism--scientists and entrepreneurs manage externals. Voyages, Galileo, and Descartes Discourse on Method (1637) starting point modern science begin of end Ren. rhetoric. New science sought removal from received knowledge which included language which is historically situated. Identity performance not as valued as personal thought due to public men who were stylists but intellectual life divorced from political life--such as Michel de Montaigne (d. 1592) and Francis Bacon (d. 1626). Montaigne's Essays (1588) said only understand how powerful convention and education are in shaping opinion--similar to Erasmus that reason incapable true knowledge and radical in casting off all authority and received wisdom. Bacon Essays or Counsells, Civill and Morall (1625) disliked bloodless prose of Ramism, his own style makes use of figures and tropes. But The Advancement of Learning (1605) and Novum Organum (1620) Bacon demotes rhetoric to a technical skill simple help give knowledge to those less able, but more interested in scientific knowledge. Little impact first, Scholasticism still strong, but hardened to elitest, change emerged 17th century. John Amos Comenius said knowledge through senses The World in Pictures (1658) gives illustrated world list, may have felt some support from Bacon who said rhetoric created lively "pictures" to impress the mind. Jansenists, heretical sect that attracted Blaise Pascal, started Port Royal schools demanded asceticism. Antoine Arnold "The Art of Thinking" (1674) human depravity taints rhetoric. Bernard Lamy's The Art of Speaking (1676) also rejected rhetorical invention. Best exemplified Thomas Sprat The History of the Royal Society (1667) rejected rhetorical invention/ornamentation, but even the rejection has style itself--directness and simplicity described as Senecan. The debates on style had political overtones. Neo-Ciceronian monarchical and Senecan republican and austere Protestantism. Catholicism grew in France along wth Neo-Ciceronianism, with women like Madeleine de Scudery known for her novels. Did not challenge women's position, but suggested more natural eloquent could use language better in private and thus direct decisions. Rhetoric in late 1600s was deeply discredited by assumptions rhetoric was no more than tropes and figures.

Apostrophe

Breaking off a discourse to address some person or personified; thing either present or absent. "Soul of the age!" "The applause! delight!" "The wonder of our stage!" "My Shakespeare rise."

Rhetoric and Italian Humanism

Humanism regarded as first great intellectual movement of Renaissance. Arose in Northern Italian towns (Padua and Bologna) because removed from wars and disease of more populated centers. Became trade centers and vied for political power. Became training centers for rhetoric related professions and had a rich oratorical tradition. Humanism traced to Petrarch who sough model of thinking faithful Christian but more personally empowering than Scholasticism, which emphasized Aristotelian empiricism over mind's ability to shape reality, including a rigid Latin that would direct language. Petrarch attacked Scholasticism's rigidity and made way for individual, inspired by Cicero's concept of "humanitas", from Greek "paedeia" which meant cultivated learning. Petrarch discovered large Cicero letter collection in 1345, and said in order to be Renaissance scholar must pursue learning in classics in their original language to appreciate style, not just "tips." First among humanists was Coluccio Salutati who was Chancellor of Florence from 1375 until 1406, gathered group of students including Leonardo Bruni, Poggio Bracciolini, and Lorenzo Villa--professional rhetorician who recovered classical texts such as Quintillian. These dynamics opened dialogue between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church in late 14th century. George Trebizond, emigrant from Byzantium, wrote On the Sweetness of Speech and introduced style of Second Sophist Hermogenes to the West, as well as translations of Aristotle's Rhetoric, the canons, and Introduction to Dialectic in 1440. This resulted in Jewish rhetoric which combined classical sources and biblical eloquence the inspired later Christian works. Rhetoric became combined wth philosophy and the means to shape reality, and supported religious tolerance--emphasizing personal performance. The concept of "sprezzatura" which is making accomplishments look natural not studied developed. Machiavelli's The Prince urged all rhetorical tools, even if manipulative, to push for consensual government. Humanist educators prepared kids to fulfill Cicero ideal, but opportunities diminished unless aristocracy.

Quintilianistic School

Largely follows Ciceronian system. Five canons are at the core. Rhetoric becomes a center of education. Quintilian "showed how rhetoric pervaded and largely directed ancient education."Key idea: The orator is the good man speaking well. Tied virtue (public ethics) into description of rhetorical practice. He was an educator-moralist. Go to Aristotle for the function and scope of rhetoric, Cicero for its pursuit and achievements, and Quintilian for its method

Rhetoric of Composition

Middle of 19th composition become clearly defined branch of rhetoric. Blair, Campbell, Whatley dominated, mechanic efficiency desired. Herbert Spencer's essay Philosophy of Style said successful communication requires lest exertion of energy, raised 18th century perspicuity to new heights. Elements of the Art of Rhetoric (1850) Henry Day oratory proper rhetoric but anticipates composition. Rhetoric is art of discourse and that is a faculty of communicating thoughts. It is connective not creative, grounds in science of grammar, logic, ethics, aesthetics, no content of its own. Invention arranging elements of parent sciences into 1/4 forms: explanation, confirmation, excitation, and persuasion. Later compositionists retained idea rhetoric is derivative, dispensed invention part of it. Turned from theory focused textbooks. Alexander Bain (1818-1903) Scot used rhetorical theory of Campbell to devise psych. approach to composition, major psych. figure before Freud--two works became standard texts. Applies theories of associationism physiology and psych. to composition. Mental operations discrimination, retentiveness, and agreement. Operations associative bring contrast, contiguity, and similarity. English Composition and Rhetoric: A Manual (1866) says metaphor, metonymy, and antithesis parallel to mental operations. Responsible for modes of discourse being: description, narration, exposition, and persuasion--and paragraph unity. Rhetoric disengaging from belles lettres. Poetry is not rhetoric. Poetry mimetic mediates between people and nature, for contemplation, rhetoric for action. The split occurs, 1828 London U developed English lit chair, Edinburgh separates rhetoric and lit 1845; John Hopkins/Harvard did same 1876, 1904 Cambridge. By end of century another split in U.S. as speech departments take elocution and rhetoric. Adam Sherman Hill took rhetoric chair Harvard, taught style, usage, editing. The Principles of Rhetoric (1878), helped this approach take off in US university system. Rhetoric defined as "art of efficient communication." Getting it right is the goal, becomes technical writing course, persuasion de-emphasized, oral performance deregulated to elocution course. Stripped down due to large numbers of students needed guidelines how to teach.

Antanaclasis

Reflection or bending back 1. One word used in two contrasting, usually comic, senses. The classical term closest to a plain English pun. Thus a men's clothing store advertises "Law suits our speciality," with some three-piece suits illustrated. 2. Homonymie pun, as when Lady Diana Cooper, in one of her famous misspellings, sent someone a recipe for "Souls in Sauce." 3. Punning Ploce: "the goods of life rather than the good life" (Lewis Mumford).

CAMPBELL

Rhetoric is "to enlighten the understanding, to please the imagination, to move the passions, or to influence the will." The three types of evidence are mathematical axioms (derived through reasoning), consciousness (through sense perception), and common sense (which Buffier had first applied to rhetoric as a solution to Cartesian and Lockean solipsism).

Platonic School

Rhetoric is not an art, nor does it lead to truth (dialectic does that). Rhetoric is immoral. In Phaedras ideal rhetoric is dialectic plus psychology. True rhetoric is soul medicine.

Women's Rhetorics

Secondary education was rare for women. 1851 Harriet Taylor Mill complained "superficial." Mary Astell heralded trend as women became more literate, end of 18th century 50% women literate. Anna Julia Cooper enrolled secondary, mentored by male teacher in Greek, earned B.A. M.A. and one of first African American women earn PhD. Rhetoric became option on co educational schools. Education improved women spoke more and reflect on rhetorical practice. Women's rhetoric based on strategies to subvert popular belief and obstacles. Protestantism spread allowing some women preachers, though the Cult of True Womanhood said women domestic because too pure. Late 17th century Margaret Fell challenged due to Quaker women being allowed to speak and be activists. Methodism had early women speakers who prevailed on Wesley due to success. Protestant women spoke out on issues. Maria W. Stewart one of first denounced white racism and called for libration, and paved way for non-white male rhetorics. Quaker Sarah Grimké first American theorist on women rhetoric--developed critique of limitations. ELizabeth Stanton and Lucretia Mott convened first meeting of women's rights Seneca Falls NY 1848. Soujourner Truth, born Isabella, freed in 1828. 1843renamed Sojourner and itinerant prophet. Aphoristic style (illiterate) made huge impact and became symbol herself, brought African inflected culture to speaker platform. Francis Ellen Watkins Harper translated African American heritage through education. Wrote novel with A.M. speech styles and most prolific A.M. women speaker in 19th century. Alcohol big women's issue. WCTU Frances Willard became president 1879, well educated EU woman Methodist. Powerful feminine rhetorical persona, emphasis women spirituality devotion home as traits needed for public discourse. WCTU became most effective way teach women rhetoric in late 19th, by 1898 no longer needed defend their place to speak in public.

Graves' Schools of Rhetoric (9x)

Sophistic, Platonic, Aristotelian, Ciceronian, Quintilianistic, Sylistic, Formulary, Ramistic, Baconian

18th Century Rhetoric

Swift accuses British Royal Society of believing everything is a noun. Underlying problem of semantics and epistemology. There was a passion for "fixing" language through dictionaries may have been influenced by Locke. Affected Etienne Bonnet de Condillac in 1746 imagined an innate language triggered by sensation, auto response not communicative until socially reinforced. Language source of first ideas and develops by analogy--it is a condition of knowledge and analysis of knowledge is primary function of language. In Grammar (1775) he endorses the search for universal grammar. This search stimulated the founding studies of modern linguistics. General grammar is placed on par with metaphysics, the order of language being the same as the fundamental order of thought. 1795 uni chairs of logic and metaphysics were replaced by chairs of universal grammar. 1801 Destutt de Tracy defined philosophy as combination of ideology, universal grammar, and logic. Giambattista Vico The New Science (1725) supports rhetoric over Cartesian method because knowledge cannot be separated from language. Origins of history in three stages (1) Poetic knowledge through metaphor (2) Heroic marked by subordination of individual to the nation (3) Human, more self-conscious democratic and individualistic--this leads to dissolution of social bonds and a repetition of the stages. End of 17th century everyone proposes dictionaries and grammars to correct language. Grammar was prescriptive, but debate over customary use. George Campbell "Good usage is national and reputable and present." Sir William Jones' announced in 1786 there were fundamental similarities among Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, common source, led to modern linguistics. Not all of these found way into 18th century rhetoric due to persistence of Latin curriculum and sep. from philosophy by Phil.'s antipathy. Rhetoricians incorporated study of grammar, speculation about history of language, investigation between language and knowledge, practical interest in dialectical differences.

Ars praedicandi

The part of medieval rhetorical theory concerned with eloquence in preaching. The response of the Christian Middle Ages to pagan rhetoric, in spite of Augustine's discussion of Ciceronian rhetoric in book 4 of On Christian Doctrine, was bound to be vexed and equiv- ocal, and it was only in the thirteenth century that manuals of preaching rhetoric appeared.

PROTAGORAS

Proposed rhetoric as the means of deciding among alternatives in the newly democratic Athens.

Anamnesis

Recalling ideas, events, persons from the past

RENAISSANCE

Rediscovered the Greek rhetorics, but the Roman (Ciceronian) emphasis predominated.

Humanism in Northern Europe: Agricola, Erasmus, and Ramus

Religious controversy between Protestants and Catholics. Jesuits 1540 developed alternative to humanist education for ruling classes, grounding in classical languages, rhetorical training, and attention to individual talent. Followed Italian 5 canon approach, program called Ratio Studiorum published in 1586. End of 1500s Jesuits running schools/colleges in Europe. Humanist learning moved north in 1400s/1500s where rhetoric and statecraft linked. Agricola 1444-1485 trained as Scholastic in Italy, translated Progymnasmata into Latin creating widely read rhetoric schoolbooks. 1480 circulated his On Dialectical Invention, separating logic and rhetoric, dialectic more important as site of invention--but a dialectic influenced by rhetoric. Recommends rhetorical top to generate dialectal arguments, arranged in Cicero's order, but downplays stylistic elements. Work aimed at teachers and reduced rhetoric to teachable method--lingering effects of schematized Scholasticism--so can be used for any argument. Educators sought for method in 1500s. Melanchthon 1497-1560 needed wider audience than elitist humanists. His universal system laid out in Rhetorica (1519) and Dialectica (1520) and were widely used, esp. training Protestant preachers, as was collection advice for preachers compiled by students. He favors a minimally ornamented style. The appeal for universal method had almost magical allure to scholars, scientific method may be result of this. Erasmus 1469-1536 met Agricola at humanist School in Deventer where educated. Valued his rhetoric as Agricola said it related to piety of Brothers of the Common Life, which appealed to him over Catholic abuses which he attacked, but also defended against Protestantism. Well traveled and widely known through Adagia (1508), collection of 3000 proverbs from classical sources, Greek NT (1516), rhetoric text on sacred oratory Ecclesiastes (1535), influenced by Scholastic but still expanded sacred rhetoric. Followed Aug. in saying need to move not just inform. Skeptical of reason left room for faith. Praise of Folly (1511) biting commentary on search for universal method, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style (1512) uses style to protest against ornamentation. On the Writing of Letters (1522) says letters can use all three forms classical rhetoric. Does not adopt Agricolas optimism for universal style but wishes that were possible. Peter Ramus (1515-1572) follower of Agricola seeking after method. Training in Dialectic (1543) involving new intellectual method and most controversial Remarks on Aristotle which attacked Scholastic method from Aristotle; and and student compiled Rhetoric Against Quintilian. Rose to high position in university before martyred in 1572. His view of rhetoric as "mere style" became prevalent in 1700s. Claimed his method more clear than Scholasticism and more effective. threw off authorities, attacked classics and classic languages. Union of Phil and eloquence, dialectic, sort material from general to most specific by way of dichotomies. Rhetoric means ornamentation. plain style takes off, esp. with Protestants, fitting complex things into dichotomy. Johann Sturm maintained support for classics in the north with The Structure of Dialectic and Dialogues on the Structure of Cicero Orator (1539)--drawing on Cicero Aristotle Hermogenes, also preserved in Counter Reformation to combat Protestants, borrowing Aug. and Erasmus and others to train priests.

Richard Whatley

Sheridan, Blair, Campbell downplayed classical rhetoric, fit ed. of the day. One new work was Whatley Elements of Rhetoric (1828) picks up Campbell's moral evidence and epistemological focus on persuasion, composition written, persuasion oral. Part textbook for divinity students to defend religion against skepticism of science and rationalism. Returns to Invention as way to create arguments and reveal truth (absolute) and emphasized need to consider audience. Rhetoric focused on psych. of audience response. Treats religious truth as analogous to other truth rhetoric deals with, knowledge. It must prove true thus discovered, truth does not convey itself. Endorses Locke's position that language conventional. Rhetoric requires theory of argument, form not convincing but persuading. Agrees Campbell who says testimony form of moral evidence, based on Aristotle signs as form of evidence, and gives 14 circumstances determine truth of testimony. Maintains distinction between conviction and persuasion, appeal to feelings legit. His Arguments are strained by apologetics, but not limited to Church use, exerted wide influence even in 20th century. Influenced John Henry Newman Grammar of Assent (1870) relies on Whatley's religious belief is epistemology. Acknowledges we ascend to things not always logically, explains more generally than Whatley why rhetorical arguments work.

Speech Communication

Speech departments formed in US at turn of 20th century, breaking from English department. Based on public speaking course, which had been neglected at a time when speaking popular. Beginning rhetoric was instrumental or managerial: purpose is to convey knowledge. Aristotelian view satisfactory, traditional categories of invention, arrangement, style, memory, delivery, and forms of appeal to reason, emotion, and authority. Speech course facade on practice not abstract rhetorical theory. Skill-oriente and function oriented model of speech communication. In 20s speech departments sought graduate cirrucoum and research agenda and turned to psych. and sociological study of speech (Midwestern school) and history of rhetoric (Cornell school). Midwestern base new discipline in science, behavioral psychology origins of oral persuasion. Speech included oral interpretation, drama, speech and diction, and speech pathology--later added interpersonal, group, organizational and mass com, PR, and journalism. Cornell group focused on rhetorical theory and oratory, including speech criticism, and generated historical studies of rhetoric. In 50S new theorists emerged turning to ideological and epistemological research.

Rhetoric vs Logic

Stephen Toulmin The Uses of Argument (1958) formal logic should not be regarded as superior to probabilistic argument in establishing truth. Argument consist of a claim that is based on data, modified by certain qualifications and conditions. Avoids mentioning rhetoric. Shows truth is social phenomenon, dependent on criteria developed by community for determining what it will believe (close to Foucault). Chaim Perelman The New Rhetoric (1958) how reasonable judgments can be reached in values and morals. Discovered already discipline that studied and classify arguments--rhetoric, and counterpart dialectic. Because argumentation dealt with probably, plausible, and uncertain, post-Cartesian philosophy had no interest. Where no proof, reason and rationality presumed absent. But vast field of human affairs depend on judgments not reducible to self-evident propositions, however much some systems of politics or religion may claim such a basis. Knowledge itself based on argument, and considerable ethical and ideologic danger in tendency of most arguments to claim they rest on immutable truth. Goal of rhetoric reveal all discourse rhetorical and no claims self-evident. His work stimulated revival in EU and respectability in US.

Isocrates and Education in Rhetoric

Studied with Gorgias, contemporary with Plato. Saw himself as educator, started school to train men to become ethical and effective leaders. Aligned with Sophists, one of the Ten Attic Orators. Saw natural talent, practice in varied situations, and instructions in general principles as three elements of rhetorical and philosophical succes. Viewed students' contribution as more important than teacher's, system also found on emulation that would enable student to become as moral as teacher. Often pederasty a part of the training deal.

Rhetoric Under Siege in Europe to 1000 CE

The next five centuries, the Dark Ages, sparse populations tried to survive in Europe. Trade and culture exchange demised with only the church having any real non-local structure. In 529 CE when Justinian closed Athens, Benedict founded a monetary of Monte Cassino in Italy to preserve learning, built on Apollo temple ruins, sacred texts replace secular for monks, yet classical texts preserved and controlled by church. What was known of classical rhetoric highly filtered through church scholars. One of these prepared by non-Christian Martianus Capella, contemporary of Augustine, in 429 CE finished work describing seven necessities: grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. Widely used school text. Boethius 480-524 CE, Christian schalar with Greek knowledge of Cicero produced work on rhetoric. Archibishop Isidore of Seville also produced rhetorical work. Irish monks became best scholars. After Roman civiliztoi and its schools fell apart, upper class families attempted to continue education in Latin through home tutoring. Literacy began and ended, for many, with Bible. Gradually cathedral schools taught grammar and seven liberal arts. 785 CE Charlemagne calls for clergy to teach laity grammar and rhetoric. An English monk named Alcuin, drawing on Cicero, tells Charlemagne extols civic usefulness of rhetoric and how encourages Christian virtue. Aristotle and Cicero become part of Charlemagne's educational reform via Alcuin.

Cacozelia

Unhappy imitation; affectation Studied affectation of style; affected diction made up of adaptation of Latin words or inkhorn terms, as when Hamlet parodies Osric.

Rhetoric and Belles Letters

While rhetoric attacked by English, French re-conceived rhetoric's connection with literature. Linked it to genres of history and lit criticism, or belles lettres. French Academy founded to promote regulate native language. Nurtured rhetoric apply classical theories to contemporary eloquence avoid issues with scientific inquiry. This association meant it did not challenge remnants of Ramism or Cartesian method. Incorporated increasingly popular psychology under "human nature"--the classic rhetors are unimpeachable. Appealing to human nature meant not aristocratic sensibility, but what is common to everyone.

SECOND SOPHISTIC (150-400 AD)

With the decline of democracy in Rome, oratory focused on forensic and epideictic and emphasized delivery.

Hugh Blair

Wrote popular textbook Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (1783). Feeds popular desire for rules, tastes, guidelines for writing and speaking, well digested if not pre-digested samples of proper literature. Own style clear, lively, and aphoristic. Middle ground between philosophy and politics. Defines taste as the power of getting pleasure from beautiful things as a natural propensity that may be corrupted by prejudice or corrupted by reason. Two empirical standards: touchstones of literature and oratory and the judgments of a discriminating critic. Basis of criticism carefully observing sources of aesthetic pleasure and deriving rules of judgment of best performances. Beauty is a psych. phenomenon. Rhetoric combines criticism and persuasion, both activities concern way languages used for reason and moving. Separates conviction and persuasion. Conviction comes from reason and argument, persuasion combines conviction wth techniques for stimulation, the feelings that move the will. Invention means knowledge of subject not topoi. Gives handbook of grammar, usage, and style; combined all features that later broke up into English, composition, and speech.

BACON

"The duty of rhetoric is to apply Reason to Imagination for the better moving of the will."

Anastrophe

"Turning back" inverting word order Yet I'll not shed her blood, Nor scar that whiter skin of hers than snow

Medieval Rhetoric

1000 years period from Fall of Rome to the Renaissance. Much Greco-Roman learning was lost, Christian leaders denounced what was left, but some Christians preserved learning and integrated it into practice.

Renaissance Rhetoric

14th-17th century with the decentralization of the church ad rise of reason as epistemology. Humanists directed attention to classical Greek and Roman learning and developed new approaches. Hard to frame chronologically. Begins often with Francesco Petrarcha 1304-1374 a 14th century Italian poet who revived the classic notion that the accomplished person unites broad learning, Phil wisdom, and eloquence. Peter Abelard and John of Salisbury began trying to expand scope of rhetoric and reunite it with philosophy. The end of period often marked by Royal Society of London in 1660, a group of scientists and academics that denounced ornamentation in favor of scientific method. Hard to define geopolitically, as places vary in terms of change and a comprehensive rhetoric of this period yet to be written--the struggle between rhetoric dialectic literary readings and the effects of the printing press in search for universal method of inquiry. Not a unified subject at this time. Early Renaissance Italy almost claimed power of ancient Sophists, but gave way with scientific developments of dialect to where people wanted to be rid of ornamentation and eloquence.

George Campbell (epistemological rhetoric)

1719-1796, Scottish clergyman who brought order to system of rhetoric in Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776) synthesized relationship of rhetoric to contemporary philosophy, practical pulpit improvement., popular interest in elocution, connection rhetoric with lit and criticism, and longstanding claims of classical rhetorics. He gave "sketch of human mind" which involves how rhetoric works on the soul. Seeks to ground rhetoric in science of human nature, for each mental faculty he identifies corresponding form of communication and proper style (argument is for convincing, pathos is passions, vehemence for will etc.) Refutes Hume, distinguishing demonstration from moral evil, former empirical science latter is rhetoric. One appeals to reason, so the rhetorician must know the logic of moral evidence--which include experience, analogy, testimony, and probability. Rhetorician appeals to understanding just as logician--rejects fixed grammar.

Enlightenment Rhetoric

17th-18th century, characterized by scientific, philosophic, and political revolution. If all people have same perceptions, then social inequality unnatural. Six effects on rhetoric (1) Ramist doctrine argued invention and arrangement were logical not rhetorical, but as experiment replaced deduction Ciceronian rhetoric became foundational again (2) End of 17th rhetoric associated with history, poetry, and literary criticism, the "belles lettres." Bellertrists revered classical writers and orators and applied the rules of classical rhetoric to literary judgment. (3) New theories on psychology human nature confirm idea reasoning an imagination were key mental faculties in persuasion. 18th century rhetoric closely linked with literary criticism. (4) End of 17th traditional rhetoric attacked by science, with call for plain style--perspicuity. (5) Bacon's theory of psych led to complete psych/epistemological theory of rhetoric that appealed to mental faculties for persuasion--linked with advanced Phil and psych of the day. (6) Elocution movement focused on delivery and lasted through 19th obsessed with pronunciation and also analyzed nonverbal appeal to emotions--avenue newly restored.

Elocution Movement

18th century fetish for correctness of language extended to pronunciation. Language standards property of ruling class, linguistic discrimination state of human interaction. Scots and Irish sending kids to London for education. Irish actor Thomas Sheridan championed elocution movement, in light of speech issues, particularly among clergy's readings of Common Prayer. Proposed reform of Irish education and parallel in Scotland. British Education (1756) Sheridan argues revival of oratory performance should be 1st priority of Britons. he lectured from 1756-1762 and complained about dominance of writing over speaking, English spelling does not indicate pronunciation. Writing is inferior to speech, speech gift from God, writing invention of mortals; acknowledge gestures alongside words as communication--natural language of the passions, and links to psych. Smith notes the mutual elevation of Scots through rhetoric, linked with scientific attitude on language. Importance of debate in London on the rise. Sheridan's appeal allied him with Augustans (Jonathan Swift) saw themselves rhetoricians. Swift said modern writers, focusing on specifics not universal, were spiders spinning dirty webs from their own guts. Augustans knew Cicero, Locke discussion led to search for common elements of human nature. France classicism and rationalism reconciled. Poetry, history, Phil., science declared objects of rhetoric. in 1740s-60s Adam Smith has lectures brings subjects together, scientific study supports proper language and style--rhetorics appeal to passions not a problem.

Rhetorics of Gender, Race, and Culture in 20th Century

20th century more women and people of color educated/literate. Women theorizing on language takes new forms. Have traditionally had be inventive matter of text, persona, and right to deliver them. Past reflected forms might be used by both sexes, though esp. appropriate by women. By 19th century began theorizing on uniquely feminine in language. Phoebe Palmer and Frances Willard defended public women's ministries. Broadened and deepened in 20th century and thus develop a tradition. Not possible before because women's texts dint stay in print and transmission difficult. Virginia Woolf emphasized importance of women writers connect with work of other women writers. Her style paradigmatic of women's use of language. Essays non-liner, accumulate support gradually/indirectly. Adrianne Rich and Helene Cixous follow, noting the role of women's sexuality in writing Men of color enter arena through law, medicine, politics, etc. Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, Jesse Jackson followed footsteps of Frederick Douglass. Largely oral tradition, African American rhetoric not suffered from the transmission problems that hampered women. Black English long recognized, at least by linguists, as a dialect, grammatically coherent form of English, not English rendered incorrectly. Distinct grammatical, syntactical, and lexical features; distinct speech patterns (tropes). Beginning 21st century field of historical investigation, systematic analysis, pedagogical practice, and more that extend beyond beyond disciplinary boundaries.

WEAVER

A neo-platonist who longed to recover logos for Western culture. In his "Language is Sermonic," he asserted, "For the same set of reasons, rhetoric is cognate with language. Ever since I first heard the idea mentioned seriously it impressed me as impossible and even ridiculous that the utterances of men could be neutral. [. . .] Language, which is thus predicative, is for the same cause sermonic.""The honest rhetorician therefore has two things in mind: a vision of how matters should go ideally and ethically and a consideration of the special circumstances of his auditors."

3 Kinds of Public Speech

According to Aristotle there is the judicial (past, forensic), deliberative (future, legislative, exhort or dissuade), and epideictic (past, ceremonial).

Anagogical Level

Allegorical Level

MIDDLE AGES

Applied Ciceronian rhetoric to letter writing, preaching, and composition.

PERELMAN

Argumentation is the study of discursive techniques allowing us to induce or increase the mind's adherence to the these presented for its assent."

Lit, Logic, Rhetoric, and Ethics

Aristotle's division between rhetoric and poetic usefully reveals different purposes, effects, and methods of two realms of discourse. Yet they have been linked. Even if lit "contemplative" and rhetoric "active", lit uses persuasion. Rhetoric names tropes used in poetry, poetry provides exemplary form. Narration essential for both rhetoric and poetry. But for all connection, independence asserted and defended. Literary critics still resist crossing Aristotelian divide between rhetoric and poetry. End of 19th century, connection with belle lettres ended, rhetoric and poetry separated with contemplative-active distinctions (feelings and actions). Burke takes radical view in Counter-Statement (1919) that lit is unequivocally a form of persuasive discourse and is therefore governed by rhetoric. A Grammar of Motives says no discourse exempt from motivations. Rhetoric categorizes and analyzes these discourses, motives are "distinctly linguistic products." Unlike Richards, Burke not widely adopted, but still "rattled" many who saw value in treating lit like rhetoric. Wayne Booth The Rhetoric of Fiction says all lit is discourse addressed to reader. Ong 1975 said writers don't address actual audience, but project kind of audience that will receive their work--the reader has an active role. Reader-response critics of 70s like Fish and Iser emphasized reader must be educated or informed for their interpretations to be correct. RR critics regard method as context-sensitive, not rhetorical. Richard Weaver began with rhetoric, not Phil. or psych. developed theory of meaning similar to Richards and Burke. Language is sermonic, all instances of language are persuasive, rhetorical, and imbued with ethical value. To speak or write is to perform positive ethical action, value of hectic as a disciple comes from revealing ethical bases of a given discourse. All forms of discourse rhetorical.

Men of Color Rhetorics

At first U.S. rhetoric homogenous. However, after declared independence free people color educated spoke from pulpits and platforms. William Apess, Indian mixed descent, Methodist minister, spoke for Indian rights in 1830s. Called for people color to unite against white racists. Foremost Frederick Douglass, tutored under abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison became major agitator. Paper called The North Star, advised Lincoln to abolish slavery during Civil War and have black soldiers. He was produced by Charles Parker Remond, close friend; and William C. Nell who worked with him as a lawyer who refused to practice in corrupt system. Martin Delany worked on North Star, leading A.M. physicians in Pittsburgh but tended towards separatism, Henry Highland Garnet another one who shared conditions of nationalism.

"De Doctrina"

Author/Date: Augustine of Hippo, 397 CE Main Idea: Medieval Christian work exploring, re-approrpating, and systematizing rhetoric as hermeneutic and method for teaching and preaching. Book 2 "a sin is a thing which, over and above the impression it makes on the senses, causes something else to come into the mind as consequence of itself, as when we see a footprint." Natural signs like smoke point to fire, no intention. Conventional signs created by living beings for sharing feelings and thoughts (voice, gesture). Concern with voice "words pass away as soon as strike up air," knowledge of language remedies ignorance of signs. Deals with ambivalence of some signs. Acknowledges "tropes" in Scripture. Says won't lay down rules of rhetoric, but he doesn't think them useless. Scripture can teach right wording. Integration: Rhetorical tradition, semiotics (Peirce/Saussure), Ong orality and literacy, A Voice and Nothing More logos v voice crying in wilderness, Christian symbolic stewardship, Schultz, Noll, indirect communication.

"Doing Rhetorical History"

Author/Date: Kathleen Turner (1998) [essay collection] Main Idea: Explaining rhetorical history, suggests communication field comes from rhetoric, seeks to understand context and construct of received messages (historical texts)--the process not just the products of historical research. History is series of rhetorical problems. Clark & McKerrow suggest "expressed history is rhetoric and that, as a rhetorical construction, history is allied tenuously with fiction." "Not just what is remembered, but how it is remembered." "The present has it's own interest in reassembling the past." Integration: This relates to concepts like collective memory, muted group theory, spiral of silence, deconstruction, search for truth/received knowledge, models of inspiration, media ecology shaping history (sola scriptura and print, communication as channels/spiritualism, etc.).

"Participatory Critical Rhetoric"

Author/Date: Middleton, Hess, Endres, and Senda-Cook (2015). Main Ideas: Rhetoric consist of symbolic practices that constitute society/identities, etc. Critical analyzes and intervenes in structures of powering engage with community rhetoric. Participatory to erode critical distance that places rhetoricians above or outside rhetorics they examine. Rethinks epistemological relationship between doers and scholars of rhetoric. McKerrow de-centers speaker-oriented notion of rhetor by reconceptualizing rhetoric as "discourse that addresses publics" rather than "public address." The critic becomes topos for analysis. Find the "third persona"the "it" objectified and alienated. Textualizing the in situ; rhetoricity of bodies and places. Participatory epistemology chances analysis. Integration: Critical theory, text + field, Kierkegaard indirect communication, affective methodologies, rhetorical ethnography, social penetration theory, Burke's pentad. Example: Marching in protest, setting up political rallies

"Techniques of Close Reading"

Author: Brummet Main Idea: Close reading is a civic and public responsibility. Reading is attempt to uncover socially shared meanings. "Reveals meanings shared, but not universally, meanings known but not articulated." Linking special knowledge to experience, method is habit tricks on the ground when in the text. Burke is an example. Using form to uncover text structure "form moves people more than content does." Fairly generic overview. Integration: McLuhan "medium is message," reader-response, hermeneutic circle, narrative inquiry, semiotics, symbolic stewardship, philosophy of com as revealer of truth.

"Text + Field: innovations in Rhetorical Method"

Authors/Date: McKinnon, Asen, Chavez, Howard (eds.) 2016 Main Idea: "The field is nexus where rhetoric is produced, where it is enacted, where ti circles, and where it is audienced." Allows scholars to attend to the often unseen ways individuals respond by participating in the field. Essentially rhetorical ethnography. How every day discourse plays a role in shaping life. Traditional rhetoric has riled too heavily on secondary sources. "Embodied presence for experiencing text and context." Looks at "internal rhetoric" of organizations. Micro-rhetorics and contexts. Pays attention to critics multiple selves. "we argue the "field" participates in and co creates the rhetoric of its inhabitants"--rhetorical place. Integration: Enhances Bitzer's rhetorical situation by stepping into it, Lisa Blackman's embodied hauntology, media ecology and sociolinguistics, symbolic interactionism, collapses objective researcher, bracketing/phenomenology.

"Narrative Inquiry"

Authors: Clandinin and Connelly Main Idea: Brief history of education being about numbers established in 1900s. John Dewey viewed research as study of experience-educaiotn is study of life. Experience is personal and social and experiences grow out of other experiences (narrative). Clifford Geetz integrates anthropology to deal with problem of change and connectedness of events. Suggests life is made of story and elements. Method of "three dimensional narrative inquiry space" which includes traveling inward, outward, backward, forward, and situated in place." Integration: rhetorical ethnography, Desiring Kingdom more than "thinking things," iGods/4th dimension reduction to information, moves away from universal language of post-posivitists, phenomenology.

"Mapping Christian Rhetorics"

Authors: DePalma and Ringer (2015). Main Ideas: To explore the place of faith and Christian belief in the field of rhetoric and rhetorical education. Religious rhetorics are often "landmarks that occupy an invisibly present space"-ignored and underrepresented. This book names them to bring them to view. Mapping helps readers see connections between domains of knowledge. Explores figured worlds and monster theory in relationship to Christian rhetors--they trouble the figured world that produced them. James Paul Gee "figured worlds", Jeffrey Cohen "monsters disrupts the smooth operation of the cultural machine" (Where Wild Things Are, Vader Lei). Integration: Critical theory, communication theology, spectrality and hauntology, post-Christian culture, muted group theory, Burkina pentad.

"Critical Questions"

Authors: Nothstine, Blair, Copeland (2003) Main Idea: Various essays on working in rhetoric, discourse, and media criticism. "No text immediately reveals itself to the critic as a satisfactory one to study and write about." "Criticism is a public act." It's worth lies partially in its ability to provoke--related to what questions asked of a text. 4 Maxims: Pursue ones own interest, written for an audience, served and confined by theory and method, rarely travels a straight line to its end. Essay explores Frankenstein myth in cinema and essay itself becomes monster of varying parts. Integration: academic writing, axiology, com theory method, historical/critical method/Turner, media ecology print vs non-linear process of writing, reader-response theory (audience).

Cacosyntheton

Awkward transposition of the parts of a sentence.

17th Century Rhetoric

Bacon reordered canons of knowledge, human intellect tree faculties memory, imagination, reason, plus will and appetite. Bacon says rhetoric applies reason to imagination to move the will. Counters Ramist severe dichotomy between logic and rhetoric, restores invention to rhetoric. Scorns deduction, syllogism guards against faulty reasoning but can't produce new knowledge like induction. Communication of knowledge is rhetorics job, where Ramus said dialectic did and rhetoric just pop discourse. Descartes method owes nothing to argument but all to solitary mental analysis. Syllogism relies on established knowledge but can't produce it and says it belongs to rhetoric along with commonplaces. Truth is probably not persuasion. Port-Royal Logic (1662) popularized Descartes into pedagogy--distinguishing discovery from presentation. Blaise Pascal said proofs by science appeal to understanding only, presentation considered desire and will. Traditional rhetoric remained strong in schools, debates raged on plains vs ornamentation. Pulpit oratory under attack for style. Francois de Salignac de la Mother Fenelon Dialogues on Eloquence (1679) attacks empty ornamental sermonizing, and cite need for natural delivery. Bishop John Wilkins tries to link preaching to new philosophy, seeks plainness over stiff childish rhetoric (oxymoron?). Some viewed opposition of Bacon and Descartes to Ramist as opposition to rhetoric itself as obscuring meaning, philosophers sought new plain style for access to knowledge. British Royal Society (1660) envisioned world without rhetoric, people say things as they are. Thomas Sprat spokesman said rhetoric source of error. He, along with Wilkins, sought extreme language reform--Bacon even admired Chinese over phonetic alphabet.

Academic Rhetoric in Europe and US

Begin 20th in France and W. EU vestigial course retirement in rhetoric all remained at secondary level. Chaim Perelman learned rhetoric once been counterpart of dialect, rediscovery, wrote The New Rhetoric that renewed interest on Continent. For most EU language theorists, rhetoric is limited and moribund, those who speak positively speak of its rediscovery and rehab. Same in US. 1950 Rhetoric of Motives Burke announced aim to rediscover rhetorical elements has become obscured when term fell into disuse. Sees rhetoric as loser in conflict with lit and social science. Lit was chief opponent in America, linguistics and semantics were in EU. Rhetorical theory in 20th century is story of how the philosophy of language on the one hand and literary criticism on the other moved to consolidate once again richness of rhetoric as a theory of language use.

Modern and Postmodern Rhetoric/Rhetoric and Composition

Begin of 20th century rhetoric appeared to be in decline, no longer prominent in university. Some EU discarded altogether. US reduced to courses in writing and speaking. But 20th became rediscovered/invented by philosophers and literary critics as solution to problems of language and meaning. Grew to encompass theory of language as form of social behavior, intention and interpretation and determinants of meaning, way knowledge created by argument, and how ideology and power extends. Themes of language and meaning, ethics, ideology, argument, knowledge recur and overlap at each stage in formulation of rhetorical theories in 20th century. End of 19th rhetoric come freshman English in US, knowledge comes from sciences. Known as "current-tradtional" emphasized expository writing, modes of discourse, and prescriptive grammar, usage, and style. Prevailed for first 2/3 20th century. Some elite colleges offered creative writing, reflective essay, and autobiography as alternative to dominant model. Self-expression seen therapeutic, not self indulgent (psych.), associated student-centered pedagogy with Progressive movement in 1920s/30s in education. Progressive and merged with social science and began communication movement--a way of thinking about language and rhetoric as a means or "technology" for sharing experiences in social setting. Communication theory drew on psych, sociology, anthropology, and insights from info theory and semantics. Interest in rhetoric revived in some English departments (U of Chicago) in 50s/60s. Medieval and Renaissance studies acknowledged importance, scholarly analysis of history and theory appeared by Richard McKeon and Richard Weaver. Applied rhetorical tradition to composition, arguing rhetoric true basis of discipline for pedagogy and research. 60s/70s self-expression rather than rhetoric appeared chief alternative to current-traditional model. Personal writing and "authentic voice" became academic concerns--assertion of personal freedom in 60s. Yet current-tractional model continued in 60s/70s, but expressionism did spark renewed interest in composition theory by turning focus to experience of writer in writing. Process model, using psych., connected with com theory movement, emerged 70s attempts to identify activities that produce good writing, clear affinity with traditional rhetorical model of invention, arrangement, and style. Became more independent from literary study. Composition professionalized, graduate programs developed, and scholars studied rhetoric from point of view of composition.

Semantics and Semiotics

Branch of philosophy focuses on language itself, examining meaning, synonymy, polysemy, ambiguity, literal/figurative, expressive/emotive meaning and relationship of structure of language an reality. 20th century most significant theory is semiology/semiotics--the theory of Charles Sanders Peirce. Described as heir to trivium: grammar in semiotics becomes study of conditions of meaning; logic becomes study of conditions of truth; rhetoric becomes study of relation among signs. Sign (word) by calling up mental sign (interpretant). Semiosis leads from one sign to another: the mental sign, not communicative one, has a referent in the world. Meaning s not identified with the interpretant, or reference, but with the effect of the proposition upon the interpreter. Study of meaning called "pragmatism" and after Peirce called elements "syntactics" "semantics" and "pragmatics" (C.W. Morris). Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure developed semiology: the system of language (Langue) makes possible meaning to utterances (parole). Langue is social contract, two aspects (1) diachronic (history) and (2) synchronic (system at a given moment). Signs are arbitrary and without inherent meaning, it is a psychological phenomenon. Exact meaning place of semiology is for trained by psychologist (mental images). Peirce influenced American philosophers and Saussure Continental ones. Decisiev influence on Anglo-American Phil of language comes from Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Russell at begin of century promoted "logical atomism" method to reduce language to form where philosophers determine how reality was constituted by making linguistic analysis of propositional statements. Wittgenstein said (1922) propositions are pictures or models of reality. School that followed said much Phil. meaningless because philosophers have missed ordinary language. Two conclusions (1) neo-positivists said language inherently confusing and illogical and must be purified (2) "ordinary language" philopshers is that use determines meaning (Wittgenstein) and J.L. Austin (speech act theory) defends it. Current continued reluctance tome away from search for universal basis for language.

Rise of University

Cathedral schools grew and taught diverse social classes, having scriptoriums, educating some women. Hildegaard of Bingen (1098-1179) was one, she traveled and taught so much (due to claiming a vacation given by vision from God) Ferrante calls her a church 'Father.' Where several schools were gathered in a Cathedral city universities developed--usually around great teachers in places such as Paris or Oxford. Collection of schools where lectures were offered called "studium" and larger ones "studium generale" which gives licenses to teach "licentia docendi." Universities specialized, and scholastic thawing employed two methods "lectio" or "disputio." All education in Latin. Logic most important, theology highest discipline, four math subjects neglected in favor of dialectic, grammar and rhetoric pre-reqs. Cicero, Quintillian, and Aristotle used. While called theology, process of learning highly rhetorical. Preaching instruction called "ars praedicandi" took off, but in a highly logical template, influenced by universities.

Renaissance of 12th Century

Charlemagne's rule fell in 814 CE and lots of turmoil erupted. Despite that, the Church emerged as a stabilizing force by 1300s. After the Papal Schism in 1054 CE, prosperity grew and classical learning was revived with the Crusades in the 12th century in a type of renaissance. A new interest in the nature of language arose, producing new grammars that took into account changes in Latin since classical times, as well as a revival of the study of style. Late 12th century medieval grammarians produced treatise that described their approach "ars poetriae" [manuals of poetry writing]--exploring tropes, figures, and formulas in detail. Goeffrey of Vinsauf acknowledged all five canons. Aristotelian philosophy was revved trough Arab and Jewish sources. Scholasticism rises and elevates dialectic and subordinated grammar, rhetoric, and classical studies. Dialectic enters theology with people such as Thomas Acquinas.

WHATELY

Depended on Campbell's use of faculty psychology but put argumentation at the heart of rhetoric.

AUSTIN and SHERIDAN

Developed an empirical (scientific) approach to delivery.

ERASMUS

Emphasized controversia and copia.

Discourse, Knowledge, and Ideology

Epistemological questions relate to language, Kuhn showed science progresses through communal argument not facts. Language not a clear medium for exchange of information, but opaque, resistant, and imbued with cultural bias. Kuhn produces crisis of rationality in scientific community. Not new according to Foucault because all knowledge has complex relationship with language and power--language may not represent one's own thoughts, revives Nietzsche. Foucault and Derrida champions postmodern opposition to philosophy's quest for universals and absolutes. Derrida takes up Nietzsche critique of the assumption external reality is accessible perception and that knowledge of external world can be recorded and communicated in language. Derrida asserts that there is no extralinguistic knowledge at all--deconstructs Phil. impossible task of making language transcend itself. Derrida has no interest in communication, persuasion, even structure of discourse. Focuses on writing not speech as exemplary form of language, b/c it exists apart from context of utterance or reception and thereby reveals its deconstruction (distance from reference). Rhetoric is epistemic, argues it does not medium for knowledge, but makes knowledge--but it could be elaborate self-deception. Breaks barrier of lit and phil. Paul de Man, "all phil is based on figuration" so all literary. Fish How Ordinary is Ordinary Language? (1973) documents the idea literary and ordinary language diff. Argues all language is ordinary due to opacity. Others following these ideas use rhetoric to collapse distinction between ordinary and lit language. Terry Eagleton Literary Theory: An Introduction (1983), no such thing as lit. Talks of rhetoric past tense, though hopes future of criticism. These scholars consider all forms of communication rhetorical--but still means practice of effective speaking and writing.

Romanticism and Rhetoric

Exigencies of academy account for absence of response from rhetoricians to two lines of inquiry: romantic theories and Phil. debates on semantics. Themes of Romanticism were anti-rhetorical, allied with lit and lit criticism of 17-18th century. Rhetoric and criticism operated empirically both defined human nature as general experience of humankind. Artists mind more relevant than audience--focus on solitude, spontaneity, expression feeling, and imagination--all oppose to rhetoricians concern for society, planned discourse, communication, and moving will through reason/passion. Ideal genre is lyric, not oration or essay. Blair's discussion of poetry part of that development, should move reader by sincere feeling of port, appeal to human nature should natural, boldly express strong emotions. William Wordsworth used mix said both poet and audience appeal to common experience for poetry basis. Wordsworth took seriously uniform human nature, seen not in classical lit but unsophisticated characters. Samuel Taylor Coleridge saw need new theory for poetic composition, grammar, logic, psych basic principles of writing and basis for judgment; but psych means mind of writer in whom perception not passive but creative; imagination synthesized generated new ideas worked through dialectical processes, handmade the mind change. Critics like Thomas de Quincy and Waldo Emerson appealed to rhetoric in calling for powerful Romantic form of oratory, advocated rhetoric personal expression sir Quincy to own creative perception.

Philosophy of Language Versus Rhetoric

Grammar concerns linguistic competence; logic is a matter of knowing what expressions are sensible or not; and rhetoric, released from the bondage f tropes and figures, is "not a matter of pie form but has to do with the relation of language to the world through relations of linguistics expression to specific circumstances in inch their use makes sense" (Garver, intro to Derrida). Traditional terms, central issue of philosophy of language is the issue around which all other issues revolve and to which they all return, is the relation of logic and rhetoric. Derrida attacks whole tradition which language is conceived as founded on logic rather than on rhetoric, needed since rhetoric considered ancillary discipline and needs news ides and vigor. Traditional language philosophy treats language as an imperfect expression of logic. Metaphysics concerned with determining relationship between real things and linguistic express that name them. Epistemology same problem with what we know and how we express what we know. Logic seeks analyze truth values of statements based on inferential reasoning, recently philosophy shifting to language oriented concepts, what does it mean to speak of a concept?

HABERMAS

He proposed a consensus theory of truth, which attempts to affirm the reality of competing truth claims while not bowing to complete relativism. Truth can be achieved through discourse, especially as discourse approaches the ideal speech situation in which all interested parties have an equal chance to express themselves.

John Locke

Human nature linked science and belles lettres. After Bacon, psychology was the central problem of philosophy. Locke divides the mind into two general faculties, the understanding and the will. All general terms must stand for ideas, not things, since categories to which terms refer do not have a concrete external existence. Tree refers to the idea of the tree, not the thing itself. Delicate balance between word and idea that can be easily upset by either incomplete knowledge or unclear knowledge. Locke says primary ideas are identical but words ambiguous. Attacks rhetoric for obscurity rather than diminishing it altogether. Rhetoric takes advantage of the will and befuddles understanding, though it may be acceptable for public discourse, not science.

Meaning of Meaning in Phil and Lit

IA Richards and CK Ogden discuss Peirce, Saussure, Russell, and Wittgnstein in The Meaning of Meaning (1923). Communication triangle: linguistic sign-->mental sign-->stands indirectly referent for things in the world. Endorse Saussure arbitrariness of sign. Interpretation conditioned by situations in which sign has been experienced. Meaning not in words but remember contexts of interpreter. 1920s/30s aseptically oriented New Criticism arose in US and Formalism, based on structural linguistics, developed Eastern EU. Literary language emotive/suggestive than ordinary, Stuart Mill creates scale to measure. IA Richards observed literary-orinday language distinction, but argues ground of meaning for both the same--both sign systems. Analyzes failure of readers to understand poems correctly. Practical Criticism (1929) uses psych. to explain how readers appropriate associations to poems, distorting meaning. Shifts role of psych. in criticism from author to reader, but cancels psych. and brings text to fore. Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936) creates scale like Mill. Words do not have literal meanings that travel with them wherever they go, takes meaning from context. Metaphor as model for "interanimation of words" that dertmindes meaning--it is the key to semiotics.

Ideological

Ideological Roots: Critical theory, Frankfurt school Technological determinism Method Committments: How institutional and cultural forces manifest in particular features of the text and how power issues shape and are shaped by the text. Affinity: Critical theorists in this sense can make use of any theory listed.

Close Read (Text in Context)

Ideological Roots: Hermeneutical, Literary Theory Method Committments: Specific literary/rhetorical tropes and forms. Ideas that the text puts forward. Inner relationship of textual features within itself and a specific historical context. Affinity: Neo-Classical, Cluster, Genre, Metaphoric, Fantasy theme

Cluster

Ideological Roots: Psychology, Linguistics, Literary theory Method Committments: How arrangement and proximity of ideas, images, etc produces rhetorical effect. Affinity: Metaphor, Genre, Pentad, Narrative, Fantasy theme

PLATO

In Gorgias, he attacked the sophists, disparaging rhetoric and its probable knowledge. In Phraedrus, he developed a rhetoric based on truth as known by the philosopher.

Italian Women Humanists

In Quattrocento Italy ranks of women humanists were accomplished in Latin/Greek lit and sciences. They exchanged letters wth humanist men in order to get into intellectual circles. Fame and respect fragile, disappeared when married, only valued when virginal prodigy not when threat to men. Rhetoric exemplified in works like The Worth of Women, 1592/1600, by Modesta Pozzo who wrote under pen name Moderata Fonte, and defends female sex against misogynistic treatment. Composed as conversation of seven learned women talking about a garden (indirect communication that exemplifies skill in a speech delivered in the text). Cassandra Fedele risked censure by delivering public orations, but also laced with denunciation of public role, and should only be for enjoyment, talks about a woman's weapons of distaff and needle. In 1486, after husband died, Laura Cereta tried to get wider recognition by circulating a mss of her letters, didn't get attention so devoted to sacred studies instead. Women gained influence in Renaissance with Margaret Fell in England and Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz in Mexico who defended religious views and attacked stricture against them. Italian Renaissance ended in 1527 when Spanish army sacked Rome and shifted city-state to monarchic, and affected rhetoric.

Auxesis

Increase or amplification: 1. Use of a heightened word in place of an ordinary one: calling a corporation president a "titan of industry." Opposite of Meiosis. 2. Avancer; Incrementum. Words or clauses placed in climactic order: "Give up money, give up fame, give up science, give up the earth itself and all it contains, rather than do an immoral act" (Jefferson). 3. Dirimens copulatio; Progressio. Building a point around a series of comparisons. 4. A general term for Amplificatio or one of the subdivisions

19th Century Rhetoric

Industrial Rev. transformed work, living conditions, population patterns, and economic stands in US/EU. Science/Tech enter curriculum and became standard along with composition in German and study of polite lit. in Latin and Greek, vernacular replaced Latin. Lower classes began to be educated, along with religion, citizenship, and benefits of sobriety lessons; and secondary education required for commercial classes who need literary and math skills. "Polite" classical education continued for upper classes. Rhetoric had to respond to changes in education.

BLAIR

Introduced literature and emphasized the idea of taste (which Rollin had introduced) and so laid the foundation for contemporary literary and rhetorical criticism.

Language, Rhetoric, and Knowledge

John Stuart Mill "eloquence like poetry is impassioned truth." "Eloquence is heard, poetry is overheard." Utterance is a means to an end. Response to earlier Jeremy Bentham who said poetry persuasive art due to ideas being believed by virtue of pleasure, and thats not good. With Plato complains both poetry and rhetoric subvert rational judgment giving attention to style and effect rather than substance. Theory of utilitarianism, goal greatest happiness, based on principle people seek pleasure and avoid pain. Reason is persuasion, allows some sense all knowledge depends on persuasion and belief, psych reactions and social bounds. Language no mere vehicle of ideas but part of persuasion process that leads to knowing. William Von Humboldt language understood as process not system. Syntax and lexicon products of analysis seeks language accumulation actual speech. Words don't begin as designations of objects; rather man "sees reality exclusively as language presents it." Reflects inner state: personal and cultural. Radical formula comes from Friedrich Nietzsche who said all language is rhetorical. Very nature rhetorical, all words tropes signs stand in for some part of thing they represent. Traditional Phil. search for truth that lies beyond language hopeless delusion. Potential connection with philosophy and rhetoric get little attention until 20th century. Connections obscured by academic situation of rhetoric and development of scientific psychology. Psych. counterbalances Romantic individualism seeking empirical for universals human thought and behavior. If all we know ideas not externals we are limited to subjective realm feelings, but this stimulated studies of external world including shared experience.

Arts of Letter Writing & Preaching

Letter writing powerful art in society largely illiterate. Books featuring letter formulas appeared, in 1080s monk named Alberic wrote a manual with Ciceronian concepts. This concepts were further developed by law professors at Bologna into The Principles of Letter Writing in 1135 CE, these teachers also gave instruction in the "ars aregendi" (forensic speech). Later manuals took encyclopedic approach with appendices with proverbs and literary allusions and model letters. The only work after Augustine was Cura Pastoralis in 591 CE by Gregory the Great who eschewed his rhetorical training, and mostly gave bishop duty instructions. Approach changed around 1200 CE with renewal in classical rhetoric Alain de Lille, a Cistercian monk, wrote De Arte Praedicatoria 1199 CE. He uses medical metaphor from Augustine that preaching cures sickness, like Gregory. Also, like Gregory, reduced rhetorical theory/invention to hermeneutics, ignores rest of canon, yet more rhetoric than Gregory. Employs there part division that dominates for centuries. in 13th century new form emphasizing rational persuasion from Alain emerges--called the university sermon. Earliest collection from Paris in 1231, also called "thematic sermon" as it takes a text verse by verse with mini-homilies all leading to a lesson. Manuals are encyclopedic. Little rhetoric from women due to illiteracy but laywomen sometimes participated. Female rhetoric found in books giving advice to other women. No clear terminus for medieval period.

Causes

Logicians distinguish four: (1) material (for example, the metal from which a car is made) (2) formal (the design of the car) (3) efficient (the assembling of the car) (4) final (the purpose of the car: transportation)

Education and Society in Era of Reform

Lots of culture/political change in 18th century, Voltaire Candide (1759), Jean-Jacques Rousseau Social Contact (1762), Campbell Philosophy of Rhetoric and Adam Smith Wealth of Nations same year, 1776 Revolutionary War. Locke's Two Treatise of Government (1690) argued gov't result of a social contract to protect rights to life, liberty, and state. Archbishop Fenelon On the Education of Girls (1681) said girls have been neglected and that leads to frivolity and presented basic curriculum and gave attention to early childhood education. 18th century more upper class women educated, and a few advocates. They made up reading public. Society of Friends noted for egalitarianism. 1666 Margaret Fell Women's Speaking Justified helped cement Quakers position. Rousseau dominant proposed system of education based on natural principles turned toward psych of learning, training faculties through sensation then simple ideas. Classics too complex for kids. Education should promote individual growth and common good, and advocated national responsibility for education and universal educative children, but society needed reforming first. French Rev. did not bring these reforms, but education nationalized France and Germany end of 18th, England end of 19th. Accelerated by Industrial Revolution, rhetorics of Blair and Campbell with emphasis on science and psych and vernacular fit new ed scheme. Enlightenment ideas (empiricism, rationalism, and psych) found place in rhetoric. Invention, pathos, memory stocked with images knowledge created argument and arrangement.

RAMUS

Made invention, arrangement, and memory all part of dialectic and reduced rhetoric to style (tropes and figures) and delivery (voice and gesture). Preferred plain style, which influenced the Puritans.

Meaning and Dialogism

Mikhail Bakhtin influenced by Peirce and Saussure. Comes out of formalist system which he faults. Accepts fundamental principle of semiotics: language is a sign system, signs arbitrary, signs refer to signs, not extralinguistic entities. Rejects conclusion of Peirce/Saussure that meaning found in psych. processing. Marxism and the Future of Philosophy of Language he says language only understand as dialogue. Systems fail to account for intention, interpretation, social context, and historical circumstances in play of meaning creation. "The logic of consciousness is the logical of ideological communication, of the semiotic interaction of a social group." Rejects disinfection between ordinary and literary language (1928). Opposed formalists assumptions (1) meaning in poetry is a function of poetic language (2) meaning is a ultimately psych. effects. In isolating text from context and insulating it from practical speech, making dialogue impossible. All genres studied as discourse and forms of social interaction. All forms strategies for producing effects in certain situations. Believes genres are useful for rhetoric. Suggests extending rhetorical analysis to every kind of speech, genres are means of dating utterance to complex situations, situation that includes a history of previous speech acts as well as immediate context.

Catachresis

Misuse, misapplication Implied metaphor, using words wrenched from common us- age, as when Hamlet says, "I will speak daggers to her."

Chleuasmos

Mockery; irony A sarcastic reply that mocks an opponent and leaves him no answer.

Anadiplosis

Repetition of the last word of one line or clause to begin the next. As in this example, anadiplosis often also creates Climax

Enlightenment

Rationalism also had its origins in the Renaissance, with René Descartes playing a central role in the separation of reason from feeling and emotion. This focus on reason would dominate rhetorical treatises through the 20th century, with rational argument becoming the preferred type of appeal, aligned as it was with the new ideals of objectivity and empirical, scientific approaches. The development of a new science called faculty psychology suggested there were five faculties governing the human being—understanding, memory, imagination, passion, and will—and reason was directed at the understanding. This led to interests among rhetorical theorists who offered ways to also address the other faculties rhetorically—and George Campbell's definition of rhetoric does just that: enlightening understanding, pleasing imagination, moving passions, and influencing will. What came to be called the modern period in rhetoric, then, sought to understand the rhetorical impulse as it affected all aspects of the human mind across a range of contexts as diverse as letter writing, elocution (the study of delivery), and belles lettres (beautiful letters or literature).

Anaphora

Repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive clauses or verses: Show men dutiful? Why, so didst thou. Seem they grave and learned? Why, so didst thou. Come they of noble family? Why, so didst thou. Seem they religious? Why, so didst thou.

Ciceronian School

Rhetoric as the art of giving effectiveness to the speaker. Rhetoric seen as a branch of philosophy. Very large scope of rhetor's field. Rhetoric: the art of five arts (canons). All canons treated; very systematic. Emphasis on invention. Canons become a neat way to slice the pedagogical pie. Clarification of other's thought. Cicero is a classifier and restater--Cicero says it better, more clearly, more vividly than his predecessors do. No cause to write a new rhetoric, so use the old one. No great revelations in psychology or philosophy. Reduces oratory to two categories: forensic and deliberative. "Panegyric" (praise) is grudgingly admitted to exist.

Aristotelian Schol

Rhetoric as the faculty of discovering in any given situation, the available means of persuasion.A philosophical, rather than practical, approach. Commitment to the fundamental point of view that man is persuaded by proofs because man is rational. Intrinsic proofs--"artistic" proofs-- included: 1. logos (pistis)--including example and enthymeme 2. ethos--character, competence, and good will 3. pathos--emotional proofs Rhetoric's function: to advise men in deliberative, forensic and epideictic situations. Rhetoric as counterpart of dialectic. Ethics: rhetoric is a neutral tool. Logic: both rhetoric and dialectic employ the study of right reasoning, the former with popular audiences, the latter among the learned. The Enthymeme is the substance of rhetorical persuasion. Premises of enthememes are generally accepted probabilities. Example: He could not have committed this heinous crime. (Major premise) I have known him since he was a child. (Minor premise) The hidden premise: He is innocent by nature and, therefore, could never be a criminal.

RICHARDS

Wanting to move away from the battle words that characterized pre-war rhetoric, he devised "a study of misunderstanding and its remedies" by examining how language actually operates. Proposed the Context Theorem of Meaning, which relates a word, its referent, and the cluster of perceptions we associate with both. In effect, according to Conley, he reduced rhetoric to the study of prose.

Artificial Proofs

We think of "proof" as meaning "evidence," and the investigation and testing of this evidence as the central part of any persuasive case, especially in the courts. Classical rhetorical training did not conceive the problem thus. Aristotle argues in the Rhetoric, for example, that witnesses and contracts (along with testimony gained from torture!) do not fall within the purview of rhetoric. "These Inartificial Proofs" were thought to be given to the orator, and so no training was provided in how to develop them. The true test of the orator was his skill in devising artificial proofs, those developed by the principles of rhetoric itself. Artificial proofs amount to what we would call the interpretation an orator puts on the "inartificial" proofs or evidence.

CICERO

-Defined the five canons (although Aristotle had treated all of them except memory): inventio (invention of the message), dispositio (arrangement and adaptation of the message), elocutio (style and language control), memoria (memory), pronunciatio (delivery). As lawyer and statesman, he was a noted orator

HERMOGENES

-Developed stasis theory, the focus on the turning point in any case, the crucial matter to be decided. Although not very original, he is the most prominent figure in history of rhetoric according to Conley. He filled out the Isocratic vision of vir bonus dicendi peritus. Natural gifts, broad education, personal virtue, and practice are the keys to success. Three styles fit different occasions: plain for exposition, middle for engaging attention, and grand for arousing noble emotions.

BURKE

-For Burke, rhetoric "is rooted in an essential function of language itself . . . the rich use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols." Burke emphasized what he called dramatism, which involved five aspects (Burke's Pentad): act, agent, scene, agency, and purpose. By applying these to rhetorical acts, Burke promoted rhetorical criticism, which today is applied to all sorts of things.

ENLIGHTENMENT

-Incorporated scientific approach with emphasis on human faculties. Ultimately, the solipsism of Descartes (consciousness alone) or Locke (sensation alone) was not fruitful for any approach to communication. Three trends: epistemological, belletristic, and elocutionist.

ARISTOTLE

-Produced the first scientific treatise on rhetoric as the discovery of the available means of persuasion. Rhetoric is an art dealing with probable matters, which parallels and complements dialectic. The enthymeme and the example parallel the syllogism and induction, respectively. Three types of speeches are the deliberative (for political situations dealing with the future), the forensic (for legal situations dealing with the past), and the epideictic (for ceremonial situations dealing with the present). The three proofs are logos, pathos, and ethos.

ISOCRATES

-The goal of rhetoric is for the good man to speak well about uncertain matters of importance (rather than about the certain matters of unimportance of the philosophers), so Isocrates is protagorean. Good speaking expresses good thinking, which are linked through style. Instead of following rules, the rhetor should understand and exploit the kairos. Inspired the Roman orators, Cicero and Quintilian.

AUGUSTINE

-Was a rhetoric teacher before his conversion and renounced his chair after his conversion, no longer wanting to sell loquacity (a reaction against the second sophistic). Near the end of his life, he published De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Teaching) as a manual for preachers, which was influential up until the 11th century. The first three chapters (which he had written much earlier) treated biblical interpretation (inventio) and the last chapter delivery (elocutio). He followed Cicero's three styles but based preaching on certain knowledge (like Plato but based on Scripture) and recovered rhetoric for Christian preaching.

Aristotle

384-322 BCE, originally Plato's pupil and taught in his school for many years. He began working on "Rhetoric" while turning Alex the Great, stopped voting on it around 330. Existing text may have been compiled by students, but it is the first systematic treatment of the subject. Rhetoric defined in terms of using any means to persuasion. 3 categories of speech (forensic, deliberative, and epideictic) and 3 main proofs (logos, pathos, ethos). His work deals with speech composition and pioneered study of psych of the group and individual. Absolute truth is available only through scientific demonstration. More materialist than Plato. Dialectic, argumentative dialogue between experts, tests whether truth achieved, but itself does not play any role in discovering absolute truth. Isocrates political, Plato philosophical, Aristotle psychological. His mss was lost and found, recopied, and recirculated in Cicero's day--not as famous as others, but led to refining of three kinds of speech and five canons.

Plato

428-347 BCE, classified as philosopher and not an educator like Isocrates. In Phaedras his teacher, Socrates, says he wishes to plant seeds in his students minds that will germinate--certainly did. Plato, unlike Socrates, suggests education must be between two distinct individuals (not pederasty), who want to transcend history, not leaving intellectual offspring. Rhetoric is key for Plator, especially sorting true and false rhetoric. He attacks the false in Gorgias (386 BCE) and defines the true in Phaedras (370 BCE). False rhetoric belongs to the Sophists' "kairos" and faults them for not using rhetoric to uncover absolute truth (perhaps blames them for political chaos in Athens). In Phaedras he suggests the philosopher and pupil seek transcendent truth, and actions two uses of rhetoric (1) convey truth in rhetors possession to ignorant audience (2) methodological illustrate by give and take of between older and younger man. First more manipulative second is more collaborative. Philosophy is rhetorical, conversations with interlocutors, face-to-face questioning, while using wide range of literary devices in order to get people to accept his view of truth. In Gorgias he stacks the rhetorical deck by forcing Gorgias to debate abstract terms he never would have tried to define out of context and limited short replies.

Sophist Movement

A diverse group of early philosophers interested in all kinds of knowledge. Wandered cities looking for those pay to listen to them. Fostered literacy and standard written form, "grapholect," of the Greek language. Absolute truth is not available to humans, but probable knowledge can be refined by pitting opposing sides against each other, self-improvement open to anyone, undermined privileged aristocracy and celebrated human potential. Protagoras, first and most famous, and was taken seriously by Plato and Aristotle, as he encourage the study of precise word meaning and developed "dissoi logoi"--exploring truth via opposing sides. Sophists called people to see function of language in inducing belief vs. encouraging audiences to give themselves up uncritically to belief. Not unconcerned with truth, but asked people to pay attention to doctrine of "kairos"--forerunner of rhetorical situation.

Rise of Rome & Cicero

Aristotle's pupil, Alex the G, conquered enormous territory. Everyone could be Hellenistic by adopting culture. Greek art and influence flourished--including rhetoric, especially forensic and ceremonial. Aristotle's work added to Stoic School in Athens 300 BCE, and extended/ramified figures and tropes. Greek Hermagoras develops stasis theory which guides forensic orators in defining key questions in any case (from Rhetoric). By 1st century BCE rhetoric regular feature of educating upper class young men, combined with writing exercises called "progymnasmata." Power emerged in Rome and Greek ideas about rhetoric entered through Greek colonies in South Italy. Lots of dramatic changes and upheaval when Cicero was born (106-43 BCE) regarded as next greatest rhetorician after Aristotle. He wrote "De Inventione" (86 BCE) which summarize rhetorical categories taught in his day and refines the five canons. He believed well-educated men and women should set linguistic standards. He wrote De Oratore (55 BCE) which expounds his theory, combines Aristotle and Isocrates and Plato. Natural ability most important for success, rhetor must discover truth before conveying to audience, and must have considerable knowledge of rhetorical situation. Cicero suggests audience take moral tone from rhetor. The best orator: teaches, pleases, and moves.

Quintillian and Imperial Rome

Cicero's aspiration for theotev was eclipsed b Roman political exigences. Rome declined and fell in 476 CE. From 96-180 CE Roman society fairly stable, Stoic philosophy taught detachment from world and Christianity pointing to better lit after death. In 250 CE, Plotinus introduced Neoplatonism and read Plato and Aristotle as mystical allegory. All three rhetorical styles in use. Study of grammar due pre-req to study rhetoric. Mothers influence on young boys led to good speaking it was thought. The form of declamation often form of private entertainment ("suasoria" fantastic historical event, or "controversia" complicated crime, etc). Stylistic embellishment part of good style--a period known as Second Sophist. Quintillian 35-96 CE, lived at start of Second Sophist period but tried to resist values in "Institutes of Oratory" in 95 CE. Called for emulation of Cicero, less ornamented, and for moral ends. Sought to combine goodman speaking, Platonic commitment to virtue and truth, with Isocratean and Ciceronian focus on public service. For him a good man speaking well is Messianic--illustrated by Augustine's baptism in 387 CE.

Plato v Aristotle

Classical rhetorical theories were dominated by the ideas of Aristotle and Plato. Plato was interested in contrasting what he saw as the limitations of the sophists' rhetoric with that of an ideal rhetoric, which he offers in Phaedrus. Aristotle was more interested in codifying rhetorical instruction and in developing a pragmatic approach to the subject, in contrast to the moral perspective Plato brought to the subject. Aristotle's Rhetoric—actually a compilation of his students' notes of his lectures—offers the first systematic and comprehensive treatise of rhetoric.

Stylistic School

Committed to style as most important of the five arts of rhetoric, but mindful of the remainder of the canons. Forces that increased popularity of stylistic rhetoric: Feudal-aristocratic structure of the times. Vertical power structure. Ingratiation was the key to persuasion: one's identification with another's style. Increased importance of vernacular--gaining slowly in respect. Continuing Ciceronianism stressed interest in ancient languages; emphasis on figurative language. Increased sophistication of culture: trade, knowledge of Eastern cultures. Dominance of the church: ingratiation, non-argumentative rhetoric. Forces that decreased stylistic rhetoric: Growth of science; move away from figurative speech. Commercial revolution: creation of merchant class. Revolution in religion: away from ostentation, display and show. Main Features: Tended to include much under "figures," including traditional arguments. Assumption that, in addition to the common way to speak, there is the elevated and elegant mode used in the higher echelons of society. Survives in a society where the aristocracy is hereditary (from 8th century to 1500's). Gradually subsumed by Ramism.

Dramatist Theory/Burkean Pentad

Created by Kenneth Burke, this approach looks at texts through give key areas: Act, Agent, Agency, Scene, Purpose (and later Attitude) in order to explain the human drama of life.

QUINTILIAN

Developed a life-long course to develop orators, which influenced education throughout the middle ages. He followed Isocrates's definition of the good man speaking well.

Aporia

Difficulty or being at a loss, true or feigned doubt about an issue

Middle Ages/Renaissance

During the Middle Ages that followed (400-1400 AD), rhetoric continued its role as a practical art, with rhetorical treatises addressing letter writing and preaching in particular. Not until the Renaissance (1400-1600) was rhetoric revived as a subject for philosophical inquiry. The Italian Humanists—linguists, grammarians, and literary scholars—demonstrated a renewed interest in language not seen since the sophists. They believed that language has a central place in constructing the human world— language is the lens through which the meanings of the world come into being: Whether making sense of thunder in the night sky or of a political election campaign, humans employ symbols to make sense of the phenomena around them.

Origins of Rhetoric

Existing since the 5th century BCE, with Gorgias who was born in Sicily. He may have studied philosophy with Pre-Socratic Empedocles (interested in power of language, and believed (human knowledge must come from sense perception only ( and became a famous sophist when we brought Sicilian rhetoric to mainland Greece in 427 when he was sent to Athens as an ambassador. His acclaim for speaking resulted in his staying and teaching, specializing in ceremonial oratory. He denied transcendent essences--compares the power of language to magic and drugs. Corax and Tisias considered first to practice systematic rhetoric in Greek colony of Syracuse in Siciliy after 467 BCE.

Sophistic School

Extreme philosophical relativism, emphasis on argument not truth. Art of persuasion. Logic as subject of study didn't exist, epistemology based on relativistic notions of truth. Man could be rational and make decisions based on most believable case. Forensic argument, pathos, and ethos appeals. Second Period (Roman) rhetoric associated with stock themes and fiction, teaching, delighting and moving audiences. Helps people fit well into society. Argument, epichiereme (5 part enthymeme), imaginative language.

Categorical Propositions

Four forms: (1) Universal Affirmative: All politicians are corrupt. (2) Universal Negative: No politician is corrupt. (3) Particular Affirmative: Some politicians are corrupt. (4) Particular Negative: Some politicians are not corrupt.

The Rhetorical Tradition Text Outine

General Introduction: Origins and period overviews I. Classical Rhetoric: Sophists, Isocrates, Aspasia, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Longinus, and Quintillian II. Medieval Rhetoric: Christianity/Augustine, Under Siege in Europe to 1000 CE, Renaissance of 12th Century, Rise of the University, Arts of Letter Writing and Preaching III. Renaissance Rhetoric: Italian Humanism, Italian Women Humanists, Humanism in Northern Europe [Agricola, Erasmus, and Ramus], Humanism in England [Ramus vs Cicero] IV. Enlightenment Rhetoric: Overview, 17th Century Rhetoric[Locke, Hume, etc.], 18th Century Rhetoric [Campbell, Blair, etc.] V. 19th Century Rhetoric: Richard Whatley, Women's Rhetorics, Rhetoric of Men of Color, Rhetoric of Composition, Romanticism and Rhetoric, Language Rhetoric and Knowledge. VI. Modern and Postmodern Rhetoric: Rhetoric and Composition, Speech Communication, Academic Rhetoric in EU and US, Philosophy of Language vs. Rhetoric, Semantics and Semiotics, The Meaning of Meaning in Philosophy and Lit, Meaning and Dialogism, Lit Rhetoric Logic and Ethics, Rhetoric vs Logic, Discourse Knowledge and Ideology, Rhetorics of Gender Race and Culture in 20th Century, The Reach of Rhetoric

Readings in Rhetorical Criticism Textbook Outline

I. Purposes of Rhetorical Criticism II. Neo-Classical Criticism III. Close Textual Analysis IV. Dramatistic Criticism V. Narrative Criticism VI. Metaphoric Criticism VII. Social Movement Criticism VIII. Genre Criticism IX. Ideographic Criticism X. Gender Criticism XI. Critical Rhetoric

Narrative

Ideological Roots: Classical phronesis, Literary theory Method Commitments: Coherence and fidelity are more critical to rhetorical effect than traditional rationality and technical expertise. There is also and explicit focus on implicit and explicit values that determine what counts as "facts" in a given rhetorical community. Affinity: Ideological, Genre, Pentad, Fantasy theme

Neo-Classical

Ideological Roots: Classical thought Method Commitments: How five canons, three forms of proof, management of topoi, etc., produce a particular effect. Affinity: Close read, metaphor

Genre

Ideological Roots: Literary theory, Classical thought Method Committments: Elements form and content that may offer classification of particular work within existing category or provide rationale for creation of new category. Affinity: Close Read, Neo-Classical, Fantasy theme

Pentadic

Ideological Roots: Literary theory, Drama Method Commitments: How different elements of rhetorical situation fill the obligations of the pentad and the relationships that exist among these elements. Affinity: Genre, Cluster, Neo-classical, Narrative, Metaphoric Ideological

Metaphoric

Ideological Roots: Literary theory, Philosophy of language Method Commitments: Tenor and Vehicle of metaphor and way in which particulars of tenor and vehicle explain effect, clarify intent or reveal ideology. Affinity: Cluster, Genre, Narrative, Fantasy theme

Fantasy Theme

Ideological Roots: Social Psychology, Drama, Rhetoric as epistemic Method Commitments: Identification of terms, scenarios and characters that help to formulate a coherent world view for members. Affinity: All approaches listed can work within fantasy theme

Cacemphaton

Ill-sounding 1. Scurrilous jest; lewd allusion or double entendre, as when the blues singer Big Bill Broonzy sings, "I'm gonna squeeze your lemon, baby, 'till the good juice comes." 2. Sounds combined for harsh effect

Christian Treatment of Rhetoric to Augustine

In first 4 centuries of CE Roman Govt increasingly torn by conflicts and invasions. Throughout collapse Christian learning maintained in Eastern Mediterranean. Origin founded school in Palestine in mid-200s CE and drew on Greco-Roman rhetorical concepts of persuasion. What dialectic is to rhetoric in Aristotelian system, hermeneutics, biblical interception, and homiletics is for Christian thinkers. Constantine legitimizes Christianity in 4th century created room for rhetorically trained clergy like John Chrysostom, who flourished in the east and cerated a scholarly tradition. 392 CE Theodosius outlawed pagan religions and in 425 Theodosius II preserved much pagan learning in Constantinople. 529 CE Justinian closed schools of philosophy and rhetoric in Athens, but teachers had moved to Constantinople. Crusaders maintained scholarly traditions in 1204 CE until 1425 CE when conquered by Turks, curriculum included classics. First and 2nd centuries Latin Christians embattled, they had issues with the content of Greco-Roman lit. Led Tertullian "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" He had been rhetoric prof before conversion, and condemns more philosophy than rhetoric. Jerome in 420 CE slammed it due to a dream he had accusing of him being Ciceronian not Christians, "What does Horace have to do with the Psalms?" Augustine, a contemporary of Jerome, 354-430 CE, recognize classical learning valuable for Christians and reconciled the two as he was trained and taught rhetoric prior to conversion. De Doctrina 397 CE taught hermeneutics and homiletics. It legitimated the study of classics for Latin speaking Christians.

Longinus

Name given to unknown author of On the Sublime (first century BCE). It may have been written for private circulation. In classical times literature was not divorced from rhetoric. Aristotle distinguished between the and poetry, most ancient lit students did not. They would have described themselves as rhetoricians not lit critics, and went o lit to find material to help students, in order to learn how to affect an audience. It lists basic tropes and figures, Longinus links technical proficiency and a noble personal character in study of sublime, only someone who has both can produce great writing. A texts sublimity is determined by its form but also its affect on audience. The ideal orator is acutely alive to the subtleties of verbal effects, but sees these effects as deponent on moral qualities of the artist and audience as much as on their taste in stylistic embellishments. The sublime is produced by the good man speaking well. It is a powerful emotional effect. Classical Rhetoric has grand, middle, and plain style, and while Longinus extols grand he tries to show a good character can achieve effects through all. Influential work on 18th century due to style analysis and porto-romantic desire for more emotional/personal elements.

Baconian School

Nature: Philosophical-speculative reordering of human thought on communication. Not a consistent theory. Part of a larger philosophical context--"the new science." New logic--inductive. New psychology--"faculty" psychology. New conception of how humans come to know and believe. Sources: New epistemological and psychological assumptions. Rhetoric not confined to transmission of what has always existed or been known. Reconstituting of old knowledge. Idea that argument not really necessary for communication. Development of a rhetoric of exposition. Movement of logic away from rhetoric (induction a tool of science now).

Formulary School

Nature: pedagogical, models ["formulae"] for schoolboys; illustration of rhetorical principles. Adequacy: Then: satisfied needs of classrooms at the time. Now: Formulae used in today's speech texts are evidence of the pattern. Forces: Continuation of established practice from ancient times. Gave increasing number of tradesmen a quick education. Lower level education; taught form rather than substance. Least popular.

Ramistic School

Part of general movement away from scholasticism in 16th and 17th centuries. Helped break hold of scholastic "Aristotelianism" on higher education. Origins: no specific ones. Borrowed to suit. Influenced movement of rhetoric toward emphasis on style and delivery because the Ramistic system reduced rhetoric's realm to these two canons. Tends to emphasize ingratiation. "To speak uncommonly is to speak well." Precipitated anti-Ramistic works, themselves significant. Ramus's "natural" method was controversial, but became the rule for many learned treatises of 16th and 17th centuries. Ramism became associated with Puritanism, especially in New England, and thus became the primary rhetorical influence on New England preaching; system taught at Harvard. Relevance: implicit in his work is the idea that organization is organic--there is a "natural" pattern.

GORGIAS

Proposed rhetoric as the means to prevail in the climate of the newly democratic Athens.

Current Rhetoric

Rhetorical theories address what makes a public, personal diaries as rhetoric, and television, the Internet, and Web sites as rhetorical artifacts. This means that rhetorical theory also includes the study of visual and nonverbal elements, such as the study of art and architecture, buildings and all design elements of cities, and dress and appearance, to sports, to name only a few. There is virtually nothing that is part of the human experience that cannot be looked at from a rhetorical perspective. Rhetorical theory has also seen a shift away from a strict focus on persuasion as the central focus of rhetoric to an interest in all of the reasons for which humans create rhetoric. For some rhetorical theorists, all human symbol use is inherently persuasive—no matter what our intent, anything we say or write, whether intentional or not, affects those around us. Other rhetorical theorists continue to focus on delineating how persuasion works in the variety of new arenas for theorizing.

Origins of Rhetorical Theory

Rhetorical theory is said to have begun in Syracuse on the island of Sicily when a dictator was overthrown, leaving former and current landowners to argue in court over who rightfully owned the land—the original owners or those who had been given the land during the tyrant's regime. Under the Greek legal system of the time, individuals had to present their own cases in court—they could not hire lawyers to speak for them—creating the need for individuals to become adept at the art of rhetoric. Corax can be credited with the first formal rhetorical theory; he wrote a treatise called "The Art of Rhetoric" to assist those involved in the land disputes. In his treatise, he highlighted the importance of probability to rhetoric; a speaker should argue from general probabilities or create a probable connection or basis for belief when actual facts cannot be established.Corax's student, Tisias, brought the teaching of rhetoric to Athens and mainland Greece.

Rhetorical Theory

Rhetorical theory is the body of thought about human symbol use. The term rhetoric, in its popular usage, typically has negative connotations. Rhetoric is contrasted with action; it is empty words, talk without substance, mere ornament. This contemporary understanding of rhetoric is at odds with a long history of rhetorical theory, dating back in the West to ancient Greece and Rome, that provides a long-standing foundation on which the contemporary discipline of communication is built. At the heart of theorizing about rhetoric, whether for the Greeks or contemporary scholars, is what came to be called by Lloyd Bitzer in 1968 the rhetorical situation. Rhetoric occurs in response to an exigence or some kind of urgency, problem, or something not as it should be. Another characteristic of the situation is the audience— those individuals capable of affecting the exigence in some way. In addition, there are constraints in the situation—positive and negative factors that hinder or enhance the possibility that the audience will be able to affect the exigence. Rhetoric comes into being, then, when a rhetor observes or creates an exigence and offers discourse designed to bring the interests of the audience to bear on it. In essence, then, rhetorical theorists address some or all parts of the rhetorical situation.

Contemporary Period

The contemporary period of rhetorical theory emerged from several starting points. In Europe and the United States, propaganda efforts during World War II gave rise to various media institutes that were designed to study not only propaganda but also all kinds of communication processes. British and European philosophers— from I. A. Richards in England, Cha'im Perelman in the Netherlands, Jürgen Habermas in Germany, and Michael Foucault in France—began to take up rhetorical issues—though they did not necessarily refer to themselves as rhetorical scholars. They were interested in language and how it functioned—at a microlevel to create or dispel misunderstandings, to adapt arguments to particular audiences, to create the possibility for reason in society, and to understand systems of discourse that implicitly structure societies.

Rome and Cicero

The important Greece treatises on rhetoric were picked up by the Romans, who were borrowers; as they took over the Mediterranean, they adopted and adapted Greek rhetorical theories for their own needs. Cicero epitomizes Roman rhetoric in that he both wrote about rhetoric and was himself a great orator. Three of his rhetorical treatises were De Inventione (On Invention), De Oratore [On Oratory), and Orator (Orator), and he developed the canon of style—and especially types of style—more completely than any of his predecessors. The Romans were particularly interested in the role of rhetoric in civic affairs, and for them, it was a practical art that demanded natural ability, engagement in the life of the state, instruction, and practice to fully realize the rhetorical ideal. When a series of dictators assumed control of Rome, rhetoric became increasingly divorced from civic affairs (150-400 AD). Speaking out about state matters was likely to result in punishment, so rhetoric became largely concerned with matters of style and delivery rather than the substantive content of invention.

Speech in the 20th Century

These interests also found their way to the United States where, in 1914, teachers in English who had been teaching public speaking broke away to form new departments of speech and speech communication, as well as a new discipline of speech with its own national association—the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking (now the National Communication Association). Scholars in these new departments of speech asserted their differences from English by focusing on the criterion of effectiveness to evaluate speeches in contrast to English scholars, whose focus had been on aesthetic considerations. In the 1960s, this singular interest broadened to include multiple methods, subject matters, and various philosophical starting places. The status of rhetorical theory today reflects this diversity: No longer confined to simply the study of speeches or discourse, it is generally viewed as the study of any kind of symbols. In fact, many scholars of rhetoric use the terms rhetoric and communication interchangeably; both terms can refer to the process and product of a human symbolic interaction. In the remainder of this essay, four major developments that characterize contemporary rhetorical theory will be showcased.

Aschematiston

Without form, Absence of ornamental or figured language.

Aspasia and Opportunities for Women

Women were supposed to remain seethed int he home, and Greek lit has many contemptuous references to woman and praises for homosexuality as a better source of emotional sustenance than women. However, a few women were able to participate in some publican ceremonies and could have substantial responsibilities managing a great house. Aspasia, mistress of Pericles, is mentioned by Plato and other classical sources as a great teacher of rhetoric and political theory. Some sources suggest she taught Socratic method to Socrates, though few written records if any survive since they didn't participate in public often. One strand of Sophist thought argued for more equality, various works debated their role.

Sophists

he belief that rhetoric could be taught—that eloquence was not something innate—gave rise to a group of teachers of rhetoric called sophists, a term derived from the Greek word sophos, meaning knowledge or wisdom. Today we look back on the sophists as philosophers and teachers who not only helped establish the foundations of rhetoric as a discipline, but also were remarkably current in their understanding of the power of language. In Athens, however, they were not seen in the same light in which we view them now. They were distrusted for several reasons. First, many were foreigners, and the Athenians were proud of their city state and judgmental of others —even if they came from other Greek cities and territories. In addition, the sophists charged for their services, at odds with Greek tradition, so some disliked the sophists because they could not afford them. That the sophists claimed to teach wisdom or virtue, which had been seen as an innate capacity that could not be taught, was an additional source of ill will. But in all likelihood, none of these factors would have been important except for an accident of history—the survival of Plato's dialogues. Plato, Aristotle's teacher and a prominent Athenian philosopher, disliked the sophists because they claimed there was no absolute truth. Plato believed in absolute and unchanging forms— justice, virtue, the good—and used his own rhetorical skills to discredit the sophists and their views on rhetoric in his dialogues. That Plato's writings against the sophists survived is primarily responsible for the negative associations of rhetoric that persist to this day.

Aristotle's Definition of Rhetoric

the art of discovering all the available means of persuasion. For the ancient Greeks, rhetoric was the use of logos or logical argument, ethos or speaker credibility, and pathos or emotional argument to construct a persuasive argument. Rhetoric essentially was the art of discourse, of systematically and artfully thinking through the five canons of rhetoric: invention, organization, style, delivery, and memory.