ROMAN FORM FUNCTION CONTEXT AND CONTENT

FORM: - The entire city has been carved into the rock face The ability of ancient people to carve such a large building still confounds modern engineers The Treasury's façade is 24.9 meters wide and 38.77 meters high The style most clearly embodies the Hellenistic style and reflects the influence of Alexandria, the greatest city in the Eastern Mediterranean at this time. Its architecture features a broken pediment and central circular building on the upper level This architectural element originated in Alexandria. Ornate Corinthian columns are used throughout Above the broken pediments, the bases of two obelisks appear and stretch upwards into the rock CONTEXT: - The ancient sources inform us that the Nabataeans were great traders, who controlled the luxury trade in incense during the late Hellenistic and early Roman periods. The Hellenistic period stretches from the death of Alexander the Great 323 BCE to 31 BCE when the Roman Empire emerged. Most of Petra's great tombs and buildings were built before the Roman annexation in 106 CE. - It was named as the capital for safety reasons. - Its links with the Red Sea made it possible to establish trading with Arabia and Mesopotamia while the route across the Negev to Gaza gave access to the Mediterranean and Syrian ports. - Between 400BC and 100 AD the rulers of Petra became phenomenally rich. The creation of magnificent buildings and monuments was one way of spending their money. - Petras citizens worshipped in temples which were magnificent and colorful. Traditionally, the Nabataeans of Petra had buried their dead in the sandstone cliffs that surrounded the city. There are hundreds of these tombs many of them are simple rock-cut chambers, but others are more ambitious. - The influence of the Greek and Roman world spread to faraway places such as Petra, a city located in a tight, narrow passageway that allowed Nabatean traders to bringing incense to sell north into lands governed by the Roman empire. CONTENT: - The rock was soft and easy to carve. It was no great effort to provide a tomb with modest architectural framework Once the tombs were covered with plaster, they were gaudily painted. Wind and sand have stripped the plaster away - Rock cut facades are the iconic monuments of Petra. OF these the most famous is the Treasury. The prominence of the tombs in the landscape led many earty explorers and scholars to see Petra as a large necropolis. However, archaeology has shown that Petra was a well-developed city. The tomb facades draw upon a rich array of Hellenistic and Near Eastern architecture and in this sense, their architecture reflects the diverse and different cultures with with Nabateans traded and interacted. Many of the tombs contain niches or small chambers for burials cut into the walls. The treasury most clearly embodies the Hellenistic style and reflects the influence of Alexandria, the greatest city in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time. A tholos circular building on the upper level - an architectural composition that originated in Alexandria. Ornate Corinthian columns are used throughout The sculptural decoration emphasizes the connection to the Hellenistic world. On the upper level, Amazons, and victories stand, flanking a central female figure on the tholos, who is probably Isis -Tyche - a combination of the Egyptian goddess Isis, and Tyche, the Greek goddess of good fortune. FUNCTION - The large so-called treausury is probably a tomb. - The so-called lower market has recently been excavated and shown to be a garden-pool complex. This stood adjacent to the so called, Great Temple of Petra. Within the cella, or inner sanctuary a series of stone seats were discovered. This may suggest the structure was an audience hall for part of its history. - This was a functioning city, and had all the necessary facilities to be one The main buildings are the Temple, Treasury, and the tombs The city was a major trading hub because of its central position in the cradle of early civilization

petra, jordan: treasury and great temple. nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman. c. 400 BCE-100CE. cut rock.

Form: - Larger-than life marble statue adapted the standard pose by melding it with contrapposto and canonical proportions developed by Greek High Classical sculptor Polykleitos. - free standing, sculpture in the round bas-relief carving on the breastplate standing contrapposto most likely a copy of a bronze sculpture, many copies would have been made CONTEXT: - Augustus becomes the first Roman Emperor Discovered in a villa in Primaporta, near Rome - Says he is re-establishing the Senate but consolidates power to become Rome's first true emperor The rulers of the ancient republic were old experienced men with an age requirement Augustus wants to communicate a different image- godlike more youthful, transcendent The Ruler of the Empire using the sculpture to communicate how he wants to be understood and what he wants to represent His identity - godlike and recalling the ancient G - These sculptures had enormous political significance Filled with Roman ideology as was much of Roman art Probably a copy of a bronze which would have been used ina a public location and probably many copies were made because it was common to distribute his image throughout the empire Most people would never get to see the emperor so you distribute the likeness and his attributes through sculpture Likeness - not exactly Augustus because it is idealized CONTENT: - Demonstrates a creative combination of earlier sculptural traditions that is a hallmark of Augustan art. An idealization of a specific ruler and his prowess - illustrates the way Roman emperors would continue to use portraiture for propaganda - Like the heroic Greek figure, Augustus' portrait captures him in the physical prime of youth. By modeling Primaporta statue on such an iconic Greek sculpture, created during the height of Athens' influence and power, Augustus connects himself to the Golden Age of that previous civilization. - Wears military regalia and right arm is outstretched addressing his troops- you get a sense of his power as the leader of the army and military conquerer - Portrayed as youthful and flawless individuals - perfect Augustus is depicting himself with a perfect body of a Greek athlete despite that he is middle-aged at the time of the sculptor's commission - The proportions of his body are following the Canon! Showing the beauty for the body - taking on the Greek ideal He's saying, I am going to create a golden age like Greece from the 5th century Down at his ankle is cupid, son of goddess Venus - Augusutus traced his ancestry back to Aneas the son of Venus. Augustus descended from a goddess - He is DIVINE! He also said he was the son of the god Julius Ceasar - an actual deified human being - Detailed breastplate communicates propagandist messages -breastplate is Embossed with scenes like a personal resume - Blend of mythical and religious figures, personification and historical personalities. Bearded figure Caelus, the sky, spreads his mantle across the heavens Beneath this to the left, sun god Helios rises in 4 horse chariot Dawn (Aurora) riding on a winged female figure, looks back towards the sun These figures were intended to convey a feeling of universality and dawning of a new age. At the bottom of the breast plate in the center is Tellus, Earth. Apollo riding a griffin and Diana riding a stag. Above them are seated female figures who may represented conquered provinces. The two standing figures in the center are generally agreed to allude to an important historical event, the return in 20 BC of the Roman legionary standards that had been captured by the Parthians 33 year earlier. Their loss had been a severe blow to Roman pride, and their recovery was a diplomatic triumph for Augustus. - Dolfin: symbol of naval victory at the Battle of Actium Cupid: Augustus is descended from gods. Cupid is the son of Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Julius Ceasar the adoptive father of Augustus claimed to be descended from Venus - At agustus' right leg is a figure of cupid riding a dolphin. this reference alludes to the fact that augustus claimed to have descended from the gods through the Trojan Aeneas - the emperor wears military regalia and his right arm is outstretched, demonstrating his skills as both an orator and a general. - in the center if the cuirass, an enemy Parthian returns a standard, making a direct reference to an international diplomatic victory of augustus in 20 BCE. - on the sides of augustus' breastplate are female personifications of conquered territories. these references refer to the Pax Romana, a time in roman history that brought peace and prosperity to the empire. FUNCTION: - The emperor as he wanted to be seen and remembered Demonstrates a creative combination of earlier sculptural traditions that is a hallmark of Augustan art. - Not only expresses their authority directly, but rooted it in powerfully traditional stories and styles - "visual propaganda" demonstrating Augustus' military prowess and the Religion of Rome

augustus of prima porta. imperial roman. early first century CE. marble.

FORM: - Instead of an earthen mound, a complex system of barrel vaulted corridors held up the enormous oval seating area. This concrete skeleton is exposed today because in the centuries following the fall of Rome, the Colosseum served as a convenient quarry for ready-made building materials. All of its marble seats were hauled away revealing the network of vaults below. 3 stories of arches, and then a 4th floor with windows - closed with small windows The arches are framed by columns At the bottom, similar to Doric but simpler - Tuscanic 2nd story - Ionic columns - more slender with volutes At the top floor - the Corinthian - based on the acanthus plant CONTEXT: - A favorite pastime throughout the Roman Empire was going to the amphitheater to see popular kinds of spectacles - gladiatorial combats and animal hunts - The Flavian Amphitheater, as it was then known, was one of Vespasian's first undertakings after becoming emperor. The decision to build the Colosseum was politically motivated. The site chosen was the artificial lake on the grounds of Nero's Domus Aurea, which engineers drained to make way for the new entertainment center. By building his amphitheater there, Vespasian reclaimed for the public the land that Nero had confiscated for his private pleasure and provided Romans with the largest arena for gladiatorial - The Flavians paid for the building CONTENT: - Modified by Nero's successors into a statue of the sun god. The statue was eventually moved to a spot outside the Amphitheater, which became known by its proximity to the Colossus, as the Colosseum. Possibly destroyed In the sack of rome, or possibly an earthquake - The Colosseum was the largest and most important amphitheater in the world and the kinds of spectacles were costly and lavish. - By using arches and concrete, Romans were able to build the amphitheater. The Colosseum, could not have been built without concrete. The engineering is impressive considering it was built over the course of only 10 years - Concrete - non specialized workers can create something - concrete can be assembled anywhere Its more elastic - you can mold the space because it is liquid that is molded. Take a wooden framework and pour concrete into the wooden mold and it would be covered with the decoration with brick stucco etc. Allowed for a more monumental surface. Less expensive and quicker - shaping an interior space Greek interior space is more narrow - Romans are moving away from post and lintel architecture creating an advancement over a system that existed for thousands of years. - Each spectator had an uninterrupted view of the events below, and the walls on the top level supported huge awnings that could shade the seats. A great Velarium - shielded the spectators Cleverly designed lifting devices brought beasts from their dark dens into the arena's bright light. - The exterior was decorated at the top with gilded bronze shields, the arches were filled with painted statues Of emperors and gods. The two grand entrances one at each end, were used by the emperor, as well as official Presenters of shows The entrances were topped by horse drawn charriots, the emperor had a private entrance which wen Under the seats and emerged in the imperial box seats. FFUNCTION: - Public Entertainment (similar function as sports stadium)

colosseum (flavian ampitheater). rome, italy. imperial roman. 70-80 CE. stone and concrete.

FORM: -circular plan - Everything else, about the Pantheon is revolutionary. Behind the columnar porch is an immense concrete cylinder covered by a huge hemispherical dome (unseen from the portico) The dome is 142 feet in diameter and its top is an identical 142 feet from the floor. The design is based on the intersection of 2 circles. - A dome whose diameter and height from the floor are equal Constructing the largest dome in the world at that time -When you enter you don't sense the weight of walls but vastness of space The interior space can be imagined as the orb of the earth, and the dome as the vault of the heavens. - The weight of the dome was lightened by recesses called coffers. - the light emanating from the structure's oculus invites a symbolic association with the sun/ emperor. - the large dome of this structure was made possible by the use of concrete. -the roman temple is still traditional in that it borrows porticoes, corinthian capitals from earlier greek temples. - the apses (niches) reveals the structure's possible function as a temple dedicated to all of the gods. CONTEXT: - Soon after Hadrian became emperor, work began on the Pantheon. One of the most influential designs in architectural history Hadrian conceived and possibly even designed the new building with dedicated architects It was a triumphant display of his will - he decided to create a large and impressive structure Its facade, of 8 Corinthian columns, was a bow to tradition. CONTENT: - A dome whose diameter and height from the floor are equal Constructing the largest dome in the world at that time They built the cylindrical drum level by level using concrete Extremely hard and durable basalt went into the mix for the foundations, and the recipe gradually changed until at the top of the dome, featherweight pumice replaced stones to lighten the load. The dome's thickness also decreases as you near the oculus a circular opening 30 feet in diameter that is the only light source for the interior. When you enter you don't sense the weight of walls but vastness of space The interior space can be imagined as the orb of the earth, and the dome as the vault of the heavens. On a sunny day, the sun moves across as a circular beam - Its original bronze fittings have been ripped off - Rome accumulated elevation - the space in front was framed by a colonnade it would have obscured the barrel on the side. You would've only seen the temple front The surprise happens as you approach the threshold Monolithic cylindrical columns Massive bronze doors Then the space opens into a vast circular space This is a radial building. A central point and radiates out. It's not traditional - the central point is midway between the floor and ceiling. Large enough and geometrically perfect enough to accommodate a perfect sphere Rectangles, circle, and square motifs surround the space IDEAL GEOMETRY - Originally contained sculptures of the gods, deified emperors, the earthly sphere meeting the heavenly sphere - OCULUS: The only light that comes into the space One great window; No glass! The perfect circle of the oculus, of the dome, a building that is a reflection of the movement of the heavens. Light moves into the space from the sun projects on the dome and moves across the floor - In the hall, the 7 apses are dedicated to the 7 astral divinities. (5 planets and two luminaries, sun and the moon) The dome itself represented the celestial vault. The 5 coffered levels of ceiling symbolize the 5 concentric spheres of the planetary system according to the ancients. The central oculus, sole source of light admirably represented the sun, which dominated the whole space. As the seasons progressed, and the great beam of light from the oculus illuminated, at different times of day and different periods of the year, the shrines below, worshippers may have sensed a single divine intelligence guiding the orderly movements of the cosmos. FUNCTION: - Originally a temple to the gods, then sanctified and made into a church, now a major attraction - The entire building functions like a sun dial. Makes visible the movements of the heavens.

pantheon. imperial roman. 118-125 CE. concrete with stone facing.

FORM: - The patrons had a taste for realism, or verism - where the artist depicts small details on the surface of the skin, with all imperfections. Interest in bone structure and musculature - The figure is frontal without much emotion - Extremely naturalistic style of Roman Republic portraiture The head or bust alone was enough to constitute a portrait. CONTEXT: - The tradition of making portraits, already firmly established in Italy, continued among Roman artists of the 1st century BC. The patrons had a taste for realism, or verism - where the artist depicts small details on the surface of the skin, with all imperfections. - In Republican Rome, ancestor portraits separated the old patrician families (wealthy landowners) from the plebian class (small farmers, merchangts and freed slaves) - Verism grew out of an old custom going back to the 2nd century BC of making masks representing family ancestors. The masks or busts had established a principle of recalling a specific person. People of the upper classes would parade with such masks at the funeral of the relative. The subjects of these portrait were almost exclusively men of advanced age. (Generally only elders held power in the Republic. These patricians did not ask sculptors to make them appear nobler than they were, instead requesting images memorializing their distinctive features. CONTENT: - Interest in bone structure and musculature -The figure is frontal without much emotion Characterized with deep wrinkles, a furrowed brow, and appearance of sagging, sunken skin Extremely naturalistic style of Roman Republic portraiture The head or bust alone was enough to constitute a portrait. FUNCTION: - Scholars debate whether Republican veristic portraits were truly records of individual features or exaggerated and designed to make a statement about personality: serious, experienced, determined, loyal to family and state. - The name of the individual depicted is unknown, but the portrait is a powerful representation of a male aristocrat

Head Of a roman patrician. republican Roman. c. 75-50 BCE. Marble

FORM: - Covers 1,100 sq. meters Demonstrates Pompeii's late artistic and architectural styles (was still being completed at Vesuvius eruption.) No office space (tablinum): could show they have no differential between public and private affairs (they were social climbers; not extremely private perhaps.) The house's paintings and interior decoration indicate a theme of forward-thinking Layout demonstrates the relatively public nature of Roman houses Large entertainment rooms also served as places of commerce and business Only rooms that were truly private were servant's quarters and women's "gynaeceum" - plain exteriors without windows. a relatively typical example of a home built during the roman prd. CONTEXT: - Owned by two relatives, Anulus Vettius Restitutus and Aulus Vettius Conviva The Vettii brothers were prime example of the new class that arrived in Pompeii. The very fact that 2 brothers were able to rise from status of slaves to wealthy merchants speaks to social mobility within their society. It is theorized that the Vetti brothers made their fortune as wine merchants. Along with the rise of wealthy freedom in Pompeii, a notable decline in moral stands could be observed. This is evident in the graphic and sexual nature of the artwork that dominated decorations. CONTENT: - The main feature of the Roman home was the atrium, a large hall entered through a corridor from the street. The atrium roof usually sloped inward, while a rectangular opening, the compluvium allowed rainwater to collect in an impluvium a sunken basin in the floor. The compluvium was also the primary source of light in the domus. By the end of the 1st century BC, the peristyle (a row of colums surrounding a space within a building such as a court or internal garden or porch) with its colonnade, had become the focul point of the home, and the atrium was little morre than a foyer. Additional rooms surrounded the peristyle and were used as slave quarters, wine cellars and storage space. - Rooms fronting on the street functioned as shops, or tabernae (tavern) Behind the facades were interiors that were often quite luxurious. Decorated with floor and wall mosaics, paintings, and sculptures. The typical professional upper-class Roman house had running water and sewage pipes. - The standard house plan has several key architectural elements Generally entered from the street opening (ostium) via a narrow doorway (fauces)The large centralized reception hall (atrium) is flanked by wings (alae) and bounded by bedrooms (cubicula). The office of the head of household (tablinum) links the public part of the house to the Private part. The peristylium an open colonnade courtyard serves as the centerof family life. The kitchen (culina) dining rooms (triclinium) and often a small Garden. A exedra (room with bench and seats where people may converse) . Many houses also had a second floor that may have contained . Additional sleeping spaces. - The quantity of the paintings tell us a great deal about prosperity and tastes of the times. Custom-painted murals in nearly every room. Roman wall paintings were true frescoes with the colors applied while the plaster was still damp. The process was painstaking. - The House of Vettii contains several graphic paintings and sculptures - many paintings depict scenes of women as sexual objects being exploited by men and gods - to point to the double standard women were held to in society. At the same time, nude males and phallic symbols were held up as symbols of fertility and protection for the house hold. - The decorator's aim was to imitate costly marble panels using painted stucco relief. The fauces(foyer) of an old mansion greets visitors with a stunning illusion of walls faced with marbles imported from quarries all over the Mediterranean - The practice was not uniquely Roman - First Style walls are documented in Greece. The Second style - after 80 BCE a new approach to mural design became more popular - They wanted to dissolve a room's confining walls and replace them with the illusion of an imaginary 3-D world - Roman Patrons began to favor mural designs that reasserted the wall surface. They adorned walls with delicate linear designs on monochromatic backgrounds Fourth Style-Illusionment returned with a reintroduction of architectural vistas seen through the painted walls. Mythological panels, like private art gallery paintings were models for mythological paintings and attest to the admiration for Greek artworks. The themes chosen reflected the individual owners' tastes and impressions they wished to make on their guests. FUNCTION: - To display the wealth and status (albeit newly gained) of the brothers Vettii - Insight into Pompeiian domestic architecture and design (specifically at the transition from 3rd to 4th style) Significant in size Indicates the changes in design of Roman Houses around the 3rd quarter of the first century CE. Indicates social mobility in Pompeii around that time; brothers went from freedmen to very wealthy

House of Vettii. Pompeii, Italy. imperial Roman. c. second century BCE; rebuilt c. 62-79 CE. cut stone and fresco.

FORM: - 22 different layers - not panels, a spiral that goes upward in a band that would stretch 656 feet if unfurled. Like a giant scroll, it contains a continuous pictorial narrative of the entire history of the Dacian campaign. Beginning of the War, to the top -Blocks of marbles carved - you can walk up there's a staircase inside. Small windows. 22 layers CONTENT: - Scenes of building fortifications - when you're bringing your army somewhere you build the infastructure to maintain the army. The army was the building force Personification of the River Danube, series of boats and bridge, weapons, Blocks of marbles carved - you can walk up there's a staircase inside. Small windows. 22 layers This remarkable sculptural feat involved creating more than 25,000 individual figures - including soldiers, animals, landscape, architecture and the recurring figure of Trajan. The artist took care to make all of the scroll legible. The narrative band slowly expands from about 3 feet in height at the bottom near the viewer to 4 feet at the top, where it is far from the viewer, and the natural and architectural frames for the scenes have been kept small relative to the important figures in them. - Trajan's architect's problem was how to incorporate a pictorial record of the emperor's military campaigns in a monument - a freestanding column Apollodorus's solution was to invent a new artistic mode - 635 feet frieze winding 23 times around the shaft of Trajan's column from bottom to top. - Throughout the narrative, which is a spectacular piece of imperial propaganda, Trajan is portrayed as a stong, stable and effiient commander of a well-run army. His barbarian enemies are shown as pathetically disorganized, and desparate. - Stone masons had to fashion enormous marble column drums, hollowed out to accomodate an internal spiral staircase running the entire length of the column shaft. The sculptors carved the relief scenes after the drums were in place to ensure that the figures and buildings lined up perfectly. The sculptors carved the last scenes of the narrative first, working top to bottom of teh shaft so falling marble chips or a dropped chisel would not damage the reliefs below. -The band increases in width as it winds to the top of the column to make the upper portions easier to see. FUNCTION: - The Column celebrates Trajan's successes in Dacia - The propaganda portrayal could be seen from the 2 flanking libraries and would have functioned as the center piece in the Trajan's large forum.

column of trajan

FORM: - Trajan's forum is almost the size of all of the Imperial Fora put together Elegant -top-level architecture and decoration An enormous ceremonial entranceway A great deal of imported marble and many statues The forum was composed of a main square flanked by porticoes (roofed colonnade) - row of columns supporting a roof The porticoes were decorated with statuary and military standards. CONTEXT: - Trajan The first non-Italian to rule Rome - he brought Roman rule to ore distant areas and the imperial government took on greater responsibility for its people's welfare through social programs. - This period was regarded as the height of Rome's prosperity and stability The ancient Romans were so fond of Trajan they bestowed him upon him - The "best first-citizen" The Romans felt Trajan was worth celebrating - The Forum of Trajan was the final imperial forum - both the largest and most lavish. Inaugurated in 112 CE the architectural complex relied upon imposing architectural and sculptural features to glorify the accomplishments of the emperor Trajan. - When Trajan died he was deified (declared a god) There was a temple dedicated to the deified Trajan - He was able to build so many things because of the large sum of money he brought home from the war on the Dacians- Which is depicted all throughout the forum and is found in detail all around the Column of Trajan CONTENT: - The basilica was a large, rectangular building with an extensive interior space, adaptable by a variety of Administrative governmental functions. The Basilica Ulpia was the court of law, but other basilicas Served as audience chambers, army drill halls, and schools. The bascilica was also famous in antiquity for its gilded bronze roof tiles. - A massive architectural complex - referred to as the Forum of Trajan was devoted to Trajan's career and, in particular his great military successes in his wars against Dacia (now Romania) - The forum was composed of a main square flanked by porticoes (roofed colonnade) - row of columns supporting a roof The porticoes were decorated with statuary and military standards. The decorative program also included statues of captured Dacian prisoners and statues of notable statesmen and generals. - The market was comparable in size to a large modern shopping mall. It had more than 150 individualized shops on several levels and included a large groun-vault main hall. Behind the Basilica stood twin libraries built to house the emperor's collection of Latin and Greek manuscripts. These buildings flanked an open court, the location of the great spiral column that became Trajan's tomb when Hadrian placed a golden urn containing his predecessor's ashes at its base. - The great vaulted market hall is ambitious reflecting the skills of the designers and architects who executed the project. - Entry to the forum square was from the south by way of a triumphal arch surmounted by a statue of Trajan riding in a triumphal chariot. Trajan followed By the Goddess of Victory FUNCTION: - civic space; ceremonial space; to represent the power of Trajan; the detail of the art within it shows the importance the society placed on him and his accomplishments

forum of trajan. rome, italy. apollodorus of damascus. forum and markets: 106-112 CE; column completed 113 CE. brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column).

FORM: - Dense composition No negative space / background Many overlapping figures with emotional expressions Marble Deep high relief Typical of Roman style in sculpture - the "good guys" are given ideal form CONTEXT: - By the late Roman period, Romans had to increasingly fight with a number of groups from beyond their borders. The figures depicted here are the Romans, and the bushy-haired, "barbaric-looking" Goths. Although the Romans appear to have the upper hand, the composition suggests an entanglement with only a tragic outcome imagined possible. Clear who the Romans are and who the enemies are. Romans portraying themselves more noble, more heroic, features more ideal Barbarians = foreign - More and more sarcophagi in the beginning of the 2nd century in Rome and continuing into the 3rd century Fashionable to bury the dead - it gives one the opportunity to create these monumental sculptural forms Whose sarcophagi? Must've been wealthy and powerful - moving away from classical Greek carving - instead intention put on the interaction of the figures The Empire was not as stable as in the period of Augustus. Instability may be aligned to the stylistic changes Chaotic qualities mirror the chaos of the Empire? Turning away from High Classical tradition - less concerned with the elegance of the individual human body CONTENT: - Battle, war, human form Vs. The Sarcophagus of the Spouses, this piece shares the same purpose, but has an extremely different composition. Instead of a happy banquet, there is a violent battle depicted. Both share emotional expressions and sculpture Chaotic, presents the barbarians as subhuman being defeated by the Romans Romans have smooth features and calm serious expressions while the Goths have rought features and wild expressions. Skill of the carving - every area covered with soldiers, horses, shields - some areas where the carving is so deep that the forms are almost off-set from the background - Figure at the center top - obviously the hero Coming in on his horse - twisted around bringing his horse He is calm, radiating flow of drapery FUNCTION: - Sarcophagus Came from a tomb The Romans used to cremate the dead, and then it became standard to bury the dead The wealthy could afford large, decorated sarcophagi

ludovisi battle sarcophagus. late imperial roman. c. 250 CE. marble.