Russia 1894-1941 - Rule of Tsar Nicholas II

Why happened at the siege of Port Arthur? Why was it important?

- 60,000 Russian troops were isolated. - By May 1905 Russia sent the Rozhestvensky's Baltic Squadrons to relive Port Arthur, but on its way, it came up against Admiral Togo's fleet at the Tsushima Straits. Yet again, the fleet was defeated and Russia lost 25 of its 35 ships in this battle - December 1905, the port was eventually surrendered - it highlighted the technological superiority of the Japanese fleet.

How successful was Witte in raising taxes and interest rates to boost available capital for investment in industry?

- Although foreign investment in Russia increased, ordinary Russians found that goods became more expensive. - He taxed heavily and kept interest rates high in Russia - He taxed imported goods heavily - protective tariffs

Why were the Baltic provinces subjected to Russification?

- As many were migrating in hopes of higher wages, and regular employment. -By the end of century inevitably German influence decreased and this infuriated many natives and hence caused a spread of nationalism amongst the natives.

What were the political causes of the Russo-Japanese War?

- Believed it would strengthen Russia in world standings - Many of the Tsars minister wanted the war, despite failure of previous war - Russia had wanted to expand its empire and had all ready failed with northern eastern china so wanted to prove itself with Japan instead - Thought they could have a war without intervention from Europe - Didn't like what had happened over Korea with Japan trying to set up diplomacy, both disagreed over what should happen in Korea - Done to divert attention from failing economy and social issues

Describe the development of the Socialist Revolutionary Party

- Developed from the Populist movement but focused on improving living conditions for the poorest in society including the growing urban proletariat. - By 1905 the group had split into 2 - a radical left-wing and a moderate right wing. -Despite the major divisions, the SR had the most support out of all the opposition groups and was the biggest threat to the Tsar before the October 1917 revolutions Left-Wing: - The left-wing engaged in direct action and between 1901 and 1905 were responsible for approx 2000 political killings including Grand Duke Sergei and Vyacheslav Plehve. - The left-wing appealed to industrial workers. Right-wing: - The right-wing worked with other parties and groups gathering support and momentum after the 1905 revolution. - It appealed mainly to peasants

How successful was Witte in encouraging foreign loans in Russia?

- Due to foreign investment, which increased 120% every year between the years 1893-1898, income from industry rose from 42million roubles in 1893 to 161million roubles by 1897 - He negotiated large loans and investments from abroad in 1906, when serving in the Council of Ministers

What were Witte's four main approaches to finance and economy?

- Encouraging foreign experts to come to Russia and to encourage foreign investment - Raising taxes and interest rates to boost available capital for investment in industry, - Placing the Russian currency on the gold standard which would achieve financial stability (1897) - State investment should be focused on heavy industry and railways

What changes did the appointment of Nikolai Bobrikov as a governor cause?

- Finland became fully integrated with Russia and underwent Russification. - Resulted in a lot of opposition and as a result Finland was given full autonomy in 1905 but this was quickly removed by Peter Stolypin in the same year.

What was Pobedonostsev's Influence on Nicholas II?

- He had been Nicholas' tutor and henceforth had the power to heavily indoctrinate the young heir in many areas such as autocracy, orthodoxy and nationalism (the three pillars of being a Tsar) - He was responsible for Nicholas 'senseless dreams' speech in 1895. - His opinions on economy and society were widely ignored in particular from Nicholas II as they were mediaeval

What was Pobedonostsev's Influence on Russian Government after 1894?

- He managed to influence Nicholas II by preparing the judicial reforms for Tsar in 1864 which stayed in place until after 1894. - After 1894 the clamour for reform meant that his influence was significantly reduced and his political power was very little as people saw him to be ultra-conservative and against modernisation, in fact he was only influential when it came to religious policy.

Who was Pobedonostsev?

- His greatest period of influence was in the 1880's as he had justices of peace replaced with land captains - He also became an adviser and writer on Russian Law and by 1880 he had published three volumes of A Course of Civil Law which were then used to train legal experts in the time of Nicholas II - He became the chief procurator of the Holy Synod (1880) which meant that he could advise the Tsar on religious matters as well as to influence the church, education policies and social policies

Why were the Poles a threat?

- Long history of wanting to break away from Russia eg the Polish Revolt of 1863 which led to the introduction of the first Russification policy to prevent another uprising. - Due to heavy industrialisation in Poland in 1890's a distinct group of proletariat appeared which supported Marxism and socialism and later formed the Polish Socialist Party (1892) and the Social Democratic Party (1893) - Also the formation of the National Democratic Party

What were the economic problems that Nicholas II faced?

- Low productivity - Lack of free enterprise - Reliance on foreign investment - Increased export of grain had not been matched by an increase in productivity resulting in famine - The small home market for goods - The concentration of large scale enterprises on "old staples" eg. iron/steel and mining. - Lack of flourishing middle class to boost economic growth - by 1894, industrialisation had only resulted in an average annual economic growth rate of 8%, - Lag in technology when compared to other developed nations.

What were the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth?

- Russia was forced to withdraw from Port Arthur, south Sakhalin and south Manchuria - Witte's negotiations ensured that Russia had to pay no reparations and were allowed to keep half of the island of Sakhalin - Russian leaders had to acknowledge the use of the Japanese currency in Korea - Russia expansion in far east was limited and hence within the next 25 years Russian expansion was focused on developments in Europe

What was the impact of the Russo-Japanese war?

- Russian military leaders lacked knowledge, understanding and skill in particular because they were defeated by a country which should have not posed a threat - Public started associating the incompetence with the military to the Tsar himself - Highlighted how the expansion of Russia's railways had fail as the Trans-Siberian railway was still incomplete and had a gap of 150km in the region of Lake Baikal which exacerbated their issues. It meant that there were logistical issues of transporting troops and supplies to the war zone l - Due to poor transport at the start of the war Russia only had 100,000 men and due to the railway incapability's it could only be reinforced by 35,000 per month - Prompted more investment into transport infrastructure and industry - The further investment led to working and living conditions worsening, public health issues and a rapid rise in population discontent

Why were the Baltic provinces so important to the Tsar?

- The Baltic provinces were prosperous and stable as they had access to lots of raw materials which were needed for heavy industry - Riga, in Latvia, became a very important as a commercial and business centre and hence many migrated there.

What challenges did Witte face?

- The military interfering to ensure that their transport and equipment were prioritised over other scheme Witte wanted to implement - He was met with severe resistance to change at court and government - He was disliked at the royal court, mostly due to his old marriage to a Jew, and therefore the Tsar forced him to resign in 1903

Why were the Jews treated so badly?

- They never posed much threat, however it was the perceived threat which resulted them being treated so badly. - Jews were mostly attacked due to ordinary Russians having an innate fear of foreigners - Nicholas II continued the anti-Semitic program of Alexander III

When was Sergei Witte appointed finance minister?

1892

What had caused a collapse in Russo-Japanese relations?

1901 to 1903 Japan had attempted to reach an agreement with Russia over their spheres of Influence in Manchuria and Korea yet in February 1903, Russia failed to remove its 'temporary' troops from Manchuria and Japan was suspicious as it felt that Russia would attempt to control both regions. In February 1904, Japan lost its patience and was aware of the lack of Russian preparation and therefore launched a naval attack on Port Arthur without a formal declaration of law. They laid mines to blockade the Russian Fleet in the port

In what year did the political problems come to a head?

1905

When did Sergei Witte become Prime Minister?

1905 to 1906 served as PM but was urged to resign in 1906

When did Finland gain independence?

1917 but throughout Nicholas II's rule he had ignored Finland's cries for greater freedom and instead enforced Russification

Describe the extent of the Russian Empire in 1894?

8 million square miles. East to West approx 5,000 miles and north to south about 2000 miles. Spread across Europe and Asia Population had increased from 40 million in 1815 to 125 million in 1897 Population was mainly located in the European parts of the Empire Empire consisted of multiple different races each with their own religion, languages and cultures These minority groups posed a threat to the Tsar as most wanted independence.

Describe the purpose of the Peasants Land Bank.

A bank run by the Russian government, specifically to allow entrepreneurial peasants to borrow money at low rates to buy land

What led to a rise in opposition to tsarism?

A natural response to the repression and reactionary measures of Alexander III, Nicholas II father.

What was the Treaty of Portsmouth?

A peace treaty between Japan and Russia. Brought an end to the war

Who were the Dashnaks?

A populist movement that organised self-defence military units to prevent intrusions from Russian officials

Why was the liberal movement ineffective?

A relatively small number of people Mainly middle class with little support from peasants Failed to form a clear political party Had limited ways of expressing their concerns effectively.

Define dogma

A solid set of principles or beliefs

Why was the abolition of the Poll tax not successful?

Although hated by the peasants the abolition of the Poll tax in 1886 failed to sufficiently increase peasants income to enable them to keep up with rising costs of upkeep of their land.

What demands did industrialisation place on the political system?

An effective and efficient form of local self government was needed in conjunction with a 'modern' system of central government. This required the development of professional roles (doctors, lawyers, engineers etc) and would also demand a degree of autonomy and hence challenge the autocracy.

When was the Treaty of Portsmouth signed?

August 1905

What effect had industrialisation had on the economy up to 1894

Average annual economic growth of 8% but this was mainly due to small scale enterprise rather than large scale production using division of labour.

What was the last battle in the Russo-Japanese war which triggered the peace treaty?

Battle of Mukden - Russia was humiliated, - involved over 600,000 men - Triggered peace talks and the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth

Why did it appear as though the Tsar supported the pogroms on the Jews?

Because Nicholas II seemed to not acknowledge it.

Why did Russian Jews stand out as a minority group?

Because they were geographically confined to one area only - the Pale (which was a band of territory in Poland, Ukraine and South-Western Russia.)

Describe the emergence of the Populist movement.

Began in the 1870s Revolutionaries By 1894 they posed little threat as they lacked large scale support. Mainly made up of young intelligentsia who thought they could persuade peasants to follow them by preaching at them. - This had very little success The Socialist Revolutionaries emerged from this group in the 1900s and marked a shift in attempts to represent the interest of people in the new urban areas of Russia

Who was Peter Struve?

Born 1870 died 1944. In 1904 he formed the Union of Liberation - a liberal movement demanding greater freedom and justice for all Russians. He came from a distinguished academic family and originally was a keen Marxist. In 1905 he went on to form the Constitutional Democratic Party He opposed the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and lived in exile in Paris.

What is the typical historians view of Nicholas II character

Considered, naive, stupid, lacking confidence, bad judge of people and devious. Possibly also cruel.

What was the aim of the Populists?

Development of agricultural communes and co-operative workshops on which to build the Russian economy without the need to resort to capitalism.

Describe the religious profile of Russia in 1894

Dominated by Russian Orthodox Church which was very conservative and supported the authority of the Tsar. As urbanisation began the church appeared more detached from the wants and needs of the urban population.

What were the key issues caused by the growth in the industrial workforce?

Due to geographical proximity to each other this group formed into a 'new' social class that was far more politically aware than rural peasant farmers. This group suffered from poor housing, poor living conditions and poor working conditions. Industrialisation led to urbanisation which led to increased public health problems and spread of diseases such as cholera. Socialist organizations began to form to challenge the authority of the Tsar through mass protests and strikes.

Describe occasions when Tsar Nicholas II did attempt to reconcile the need for autonomy with the traditional system of autocracy?

Established the Dept of Agriculture in 1894 to deal with mounting poverty and unrest in rural areas. The institution was ineffective and struggled to address the issue of land availability and distribution resulting in unprecedented levels of peasant riots in 1905-07

Describe Tsar Nicholas attitude towards governing?

Faith in God, a sense of duty and a rigid belief in autocracy. A strong belief that religion and tsarism were inextricably linked - clear from the Fundamental Laws of 1906 Adhered to the dogma of autocracy and hence prioritised the maintenance of the Romanov dynasty.

Describe the key points of foreign relations in 1894?

For most of the 19th century, Russia was regarded as a threat by the West due to its expansionist intentions. Russia was concerned with exerting authority on the Caucasus region Russia had made alliances with France and Prussia but fallen out with Austria. Russia had been involved in 2 major wars between 1855 and 1894 - the Crimean War and the Russo-Turkish War.

Who formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party and when?

Formed in 1901 and led by Victor Chernov.

What was the political structure in Russia in 1894?

Governed by the Tsar - autocrat whose powers were said to be God-given. Members of the government were selected by the Tsar The government was based in St Petersburg. Made significant use of secret police to maintain order. Amongst the elite, there was concern that Russia was falling behind other countries and would become a second rate power.

Name 2 high profile victims of the left-wing arm of the Socialist Revolutionaries

Grand Duke Sergei - 5th son of Alexander III. Assassinated in 1905 Vyacheslav Plehve - Minister of the Interior from 1902-1904. Much hated by all.

What was the state of the Russian economy in 1894?

Growth had been sluggish throughout the 19th century and was well behind industrialised nations such as Britain, USA and Germany. Industrial activity was generally small scale Financial and banking sectors did not exist The economy was based primarily on agriculture. The economy was often referred to as backwards

How did Nicholas II manage the Polish threat?

He allowed the rise of political parties and also the appointment of Polish politicians who played significant roles in both the first and second manifesto. He believed that by encouraging Polish politicians to keep Poles in line and remain part of the empire there would be a decreased threat to his authority.

Describe how Tsar Nicholas handled day to day business.

He dealt with everyday affairs himself and had no private secretary. The day always began with mundane tasks such as filing Next he dealt with mundane decision making State affairs and discussions with ministers were at the bottom of the daily list and were rarely prioritised above this even at times of crisis. During the first world war he decided to take charge of the Russian military however during the war he seemed to have shown an aversion of power which directly conflicted with autocracy

How did Nicholas II manage the Ukrainian threat.

He increased his enforcement of Russification within Ukraine. He also attempted to set up a different culture within Ukraine.

What were the drawbacks of Witte's policies?

He made Russia too dependent on foreign investment (which meant if countries were to stop investing then the economy would collapse) , he prioritised heavy industry and neglected light engineering which was vital for the development of heavy industry and finally he paid no attention to Russia's agricultural needs

How did Lenin become involved in the Social Democrats?

He was frustrated at how ineffective Martov and Ulyanovs methods were and called for more revolutionary tactics to be employed

What was Nicholas II main political problem

He was not prepared to reconcile his desire to be an autocrat with the pressure for the reform of the Russian state.

How did the view of Nicholas II character change in the post-Stalinist era?

He was seen to be a hapless bystander who never stood a chance of dealing with the problems that had built up under his predecessors reigns. The destruction of the Romanov dynasty under the pressure of the peasants and the proletariat was seen as inevitable.

What were Sergei Witte's aims?

His aim was to be able to compete with other industrialised nations whilst also improving the Russian military capability.

Describe the growth of the industrial workforce between 1894 and 1912

In 1890 1.4 million people formed the industrial workforce This rose to 2.9 million by 1912

How successful was Witte in placing the Russian currency on the gold standard ?

In 1897 - The Russian currency was put on the gold standard and Witte himself is to have said from his memoirs that 'My greatest achievement as Minster of Finance ... a tremendous reform'

When and where were the Social Democrats formed

In 1898 in Minsk

Why were Land Captains introduced?

In an attempt to reduce local democracy. Limit the power of the Zemstva and town councils.

Describe the early aims of the All-Russian Democratic Workers Party (social democrats)?

Influenced by the interpretation of Marx's work by George Plekhanov who emphasised the importance of educating the working class. Since there was little time or interest in engaging with pure Marxist theory the group focused on practical issues such as lowering working hours and improving pay

How did political opposition to the Tsar begin?

It began in the rule of Alexander III with the illegal formation of political groups.

What was the purpose of Lenins 1901 pamphlet "What is to be done?"

It outlined how he believed that a complete overthrow of Tsarist government by the workers was possible if they were led by a politically educated elite or vanguard. Although not a threat to the party. His vision caused a debate in the party about whose vision should be prioritised.

What were the Jews accused of by the Tsar?

Jews were accused of being 'revolutionaries' but only a few were associated with the SD, however there was also a separate Jewish SD group known as the Bund

Who led the move by the Social Democrats to improve conditions?

Julius Martov and Vladimir Ulyanov

How was Russian society structured in 1894?

Landed gentry and nobility dominated society with only a handful of middle class. Peasants were controlled by village councils (THE MIR) headed by the village elders

By 1894 what strongly influenced the Baltic provinces?

Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, were strongly influenced by 'old' German landowning nobility and gentry.

What were the main political groups that appeared in 1905?

Liberals, Populists and Marxists

What were the old roles of state prior to 1894

Little interventionism Defence of the realm Maintain order Taxation Limited extension of providing basic public services.

What were the new required roles of the state in 1894

More interventionism, managing economy, directing industry and provision of more social services. Clearer focus on education, healthcare, water supply and justice

What are the problems around the conventional views of the tsars personality?

Most judgements of his character are based on his personal diaries. Although meticulous in detail, they do not provide any insight into his personal thoughts or mental state. He was extremely private and never shared his true feelings or beliefs. Some records suggest he was pleasant and gentle and disliked confrontation.

Why did the Ukrainians pose a threat to Nicholas II?

Nationalism was less strong but still existed. Ukraine was key to the success of the Empire as it was the "breadbasket" for Russia.

Why did the Bolsheviks never appear to pose a major threat to Tsarist Russia?

Nicholas II attempted to quell fears about deteriorating living and working conditions by authorising the creation of legal workers interest groups - the Zubatov Unions of 1902) These were able to negotiate with State Officials to improve the plight of the working classes. However, they quickly became unruly and unmanageable. The Bolsheviks frequently used terrorism as another tactic but again this did not result in increased support for the movement.

What were the reasons for the mounting serios social unrest at the start of 1894?

Peasants were protesting about their living and working conditions, especially in the countryside. Peasants were also objecting to the quality and quantity of land they had been allocated under Alexander II land reforms.

Who were the national minorities that made up Russia?

People from Poland, Finland, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Baltic Provinces

What was Nicholas II original approach to handling the threat posed by the Finns?

Prior to 1894 he took a liberal approach allowing a Finnish parliament (the Diet) to form and in 1895 allowing them to have their own constitution

Describe the issues around free enterprise in 1894

Production was effectively controlled by the tsar and his ministers who ran the armaments industry and the railways which were the key consumers of industrial products There were also a clash of opinions about whether Russia needed to embrace free enterprise as had been done in the West (Westensiers) or follow a different path (Slavophiles)

How successful was Witte in focusing on heavy industry and railways?

Railways: - There was a 'transport revolution' in Russia between 1881 and 1913. - The amount of railway track laid rose from 29,183km in 1891 to 52,612km in 1901 however much of this was possible due to growth in capital investment - The Trans-Siberian Railway constructed between 1891 and 1902, 3750 miles from Moscow to Vladivostok and it was intended to connect remote central and eastern regions with the industrial west. He hoped it would encourage the migration of workers, however it was only finished in 1916. Heavy Industry: - Coal production doubled and Iron and steel increased sevenfold from the period of 1890s to 1905 - New technologies were introduced in the chemical and oil industries - By 1900 Russia overtook France as the 4th largest iron producer in the world

What was the Zemstva?

Regional councils introduced in 1864 by Tsar Alexander II. They were elected rather than appointed but regulations meant that they were dominated by wealthy landowners.

What caused Tsar Nicholas to have to legalise political parties?

Russia lost the was with Japan (1904-05). Russian troops had opened fire on protestors in St Petersburg in January 1905 - Bloody Sunday

What were the economic causes of the Russo-Japanese War?

Russia wanted a warm winter port

What is deemed the greatest result of Witte's policies?

The 'Great Spurt' is a term used to show Russia emerged as a major industrial state and is often referred to being one of results of Witte's policies

What was the first main event in the Russo-Japanese war?

The Battle of Yalu River - took place from the 30th April to the 1st of May 1904. - It started by the Japanese moving North from Korea to confront Russia in Southern Manchuria. - Russia was outnumbered 3 to 1 and defeated with ease. This caused deep shock throughout Russia and weaken the Tsar's autocratic position and prestige

Which minority groups supported the Tsar?

The Finns, the Baltic Germans and the Christian Armenians.

Which minority groups opposed the Tsar?

The Poles, the Ukrainians and the Tartars

Describe the principle of division of labour

The allocation of particular tasks (often specialist) to individual workers who are organised into a production line.

What specific aspects of tsarism were the Russian people concerned about

The centralised control of the police under the Minister of the Interior The replacement of elected Justices of the Peace with Land Captains Reduction of peasant representation in the Zemstva An increase in censorship

What attacks were carried out on the Jewish people?

The first was the issuing of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion by the secret police in 1902. This essentially allowed attacks on the Jews The wave of pogroms which took place in 1903 in Kishinev, Bessarabia over two days killed 47 Jews and wounded 400 whilst over 1300 properties were destroyed

Describe how Russia relied on foreign investment in 1894

The government issued bonds, tax exemptions and monopoly concessions to foreign investors and hence the government lost control over the rate of industrialisation.

How did the social change led by industrialisation cause issues for the Russian government?

The new social groups had different needs and wants to those traditionally encountered by the Government. This led to confusion between departments as some tried to meet the needs whilst others outright fought against them. eg. Ministry of Finance went some way to protect industrial workers however it was not far enough and the Ministry of Internal Affairs stated too punish anyone who was in support of the labouring classes, which led to much confusion on what the governments stance was on labour relations

What was russification?

The process that aimed to merge all the nationalities of the Empire into one nationality of pure "Rus". This was a key tsarist policy after 1881

Why was the Peasants Land Bank unsuccessful?

The redistribution of land earlier had resulted in smaller plot sizes. The mir continued to control what villages planted and strongly discouraged entrepreneurial behaviour. There was constant calls for reparation of land since the 1861 emancipation had often reserved the best land for the landowners. Following the emancipation fertile land had been unfairly and unequally distributed across the country and this was a fundamental failure of the scheme.

Who were the Mensheviks?

The wing of the Social Democrats who followed the vision of Martov and Ulyanov and worked for political, social and economic change within the Tsarist system.

Who were the Bolsheviks?

The wing of the Social Democrats who supported Lenin's idea that the workers were capable of being sufficiently politically educated to create a revolution.

Why was russification ineffective in the Caucasus?

There were very high levels of illiteracy

What was a Land Captain?

These were landed gentry who were intended to impose control over rural Russia and who had the power to overrule local councils and judges.

Who were the Social Democrats?

These were the Marxists - a group that emerged at the same time as the Social Revolutionaries but based upon the teachings of Karl Marx. They believed that the proletariat could be 'educated' to overthrow Russian autocracy via revolution.

Why were the peasants deemed to be a threat to the Tsar

They made up 80% of population in 1894 They were widespread across the country They were angry about failures such as the Peasants Land Bank, Rising prices and the recent famine of 1891.

How much of a threat did the Baltic provinces pose to the Tsar?

They never created enough pressure on the Tsar and as a result were never considered to be granted independence.

What was the aim of the Georgian Mensheviks?

They provoked the rise of a Nationalist movement and campaigned for Georgia to ally with Germany in the hopes of escaping Russian control.

How did the Tsar curb the threat posed by the minority groups?

They were subjected to programs of Russification.

What were the threats posed by the Caucasians?

This area of Russia was already very divided along religious lines For example, the Armenians were Christian while the Chechens were Muslim. Many areas sought autonomy from Russia as well.

What were the key actions of Alexander III that made the situation difficult for Nicholas II

Throughout his rule was marked by reaction and repression He abandoned the liberal reforms of his father Alexander II 1881 Statute of State Security sanctioned increased use of repression. Russification was introduced to control discontent amongst minorities The famine of 1891-2 caused by the Minister of Finance Ivan, Vyshnegradsky raising import duty to 33% on foods and simultaneously encouraging the export of grain. The net result is less food available at much higher prices. 350,000 died

What was the aim of the minority groups which opposed the Tsar?

To ultimately gain independence from Russia and win back their autonomy.

Why was the political system considered inadequate in 1894

Too preoccupied with routine paperwork Isolated from its subjects partly due to poor communication systems Lacked an overall vision of how to manage change. The role of the old head of state seemed to clash with the new demands

What happened in 1905 in terms of political parties?

Tsar Nicholas II was forced to legalise political parties.

Describe how the liberal movement changed following 1905?

Two subgroups within the liberal movement appeared. The Kadets or Constitutional Democrats led by Paul Milyukov called for a constitutional monarchy. They were often considered the intellectual arm of the liberal movement and played a large role in the opposition of the first Duma. The Octobrists led by Alexander Guchkov were a more moderate liberal group who were loyal to the Tsar but wanted changes to the system of government and supported the Tsars October Manifesto.

Describe the beliefs behind the liberal movement

Wanted Russia to be governed in a similar way to other European democracies such as Britain. Fairer land distribution for peasants. A representative constituent assembly. Improved conditions for industrial workers. The biggest problem with these demands was that if he were to solve them it would mean his autocratic powers would be reduced

Who was Witte's biggest rival?

o His biggest rival was V.K Plehve who was ultra-conservative and the head of the Okhrana (secret police) during the 1880's, but he was assassinated in 1904