S6

Question: This nation had a Kerala school of science and mathematics. One mathematician from this country devised a formula that gives the area of general quadrilaterals. Another mathematician from this country had a lost notebook and was "discovered" by G. H. Hardy. A physicist from this country names particles with integer spin and contrast with fermions. For 10 points, name this country that was the birthplace of Ramanujan and Brahmagupta, that became a nuclear power before its neighbor Pakistan.

India

Question: This man invented the current balance and a notable compass for the British Navy. He estimated the Earth to be at most forty million years old and helped in the design and laying of transatlantic telegraph cables. This baron co-discovered the effect by which gases grow cooler as they expand; he co-names that effect with James Joule. He also names a scale in which zero degrees is equal to negative 273 degrees Celsius. For 10 points, name this Irish scientist who names a temperature scale that includes absolute zero.

Lord Kelvin [or William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin; or William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]

Question: One can use this quantity multiplied by the coefficient of friction mu to determine the friction operating on a body, and this quantity is equal to mass times gravity times cosine of the incline of a surface for a solid body. For 10 points, name this quantity which represents the perpendicular component of the contact force exerted by a body on a surface, often symbolized by a capital N.

Normal Force [prompt on N]

Question: The Euler totient theorem generalizes a theorem by this man, while another statement by this man can be proved using the Taniyama conjecture regarding elliptic curves. Snell's law can be derived from his principle that the path taken by a ray of light is the one which can be traveled in the least amount of time, while a statement he proposed was only recently proven by Andrew Wiles in the 1990's. For 10 points, name this French mathematician who stated that there are no integers n greater than 2 which satisfies the equation a to the n plus b to the n equals c to the n, known as his last theorem.

Pierre de Fermat

Question: An Atwood's Machine involves a frictionless and massless one of these devices, and students are often asked to calculate the tension on the objects on either side of these. Van de Graaff generators create positive charge by running a belt through a metal and a plastic one of these, and the mechanical advantage of an ideal block and tackle system is equal to the number of these objects in the system. For 10 points, name this simple machine used to lift heavy masses, which is made by wrapping a string around a wheel.

Pulleys

Question: This law was originally discovered by Descartes under the name the Law of Sines. This law can be used to express an equation for finding the polarizing or Brewster's angle. When one part of this law exceeds the critical angle, the result is called total internal reflection. This law equates the angles of incidence for a wave entering a new medium to the indices of refraction for those mediums. For 10 points, name this law that can be used to explain the bending of light when it enters and exits glass and water from the air.

Snell's Law

Question: One type of these cells mediates delayed hypersensitivity reactions. A compound secreted by one type of these cells is chemically similar to complement protein C9, and makes a hole in the plasma membrane through which water can enter a cell. That compound, perforin, is produced by the type of these cells that recognize MHC Class I and CD8 molecules. In addition to the cytotoxic type, another thype of these cells is destroyed in AIDS. For 10 points, name these lymphocytes produced in the thymus.

T lymphocytes [accept cytotoxic T cells until "cytotoxic"]

Question: The pigment cryptoxanthin is readily converted to this vitamin. A deficiency in this vitamin prevents the reformation of rhodopsin. This vitamin binds to nuclear receptors to control gene transcription, though it is better known for being needed for proper retina function. Liver and carrot are the best sources for this vitamin. For 10 points, identify this fat-soluble vitamin, a deficiency of which causes night blindness.

Vitamin A [accept retinol before mention of "retina"]

Question: This molecule is a coenzyme in the conversion of tryptophan to serotonin. It is a cofactor in the conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine. Lysine and proline are hydroxylated in order to produce collagen by this molecule, which was discovered by King and Szent-Gyorgi (sent-JUR-jee). Linus Pauling's advocacy of megadoses of it has perhaps led to the widespread belief that it wards off the common cold. James Lind showed that its deficiency causes scurvy. For 10 points, name this vitamin found in citrus fruits.

Vitamin C [or L-ascorbic acid; or L-ascorbate]

Question: This is used as a solvent in the Jones reaction. Along with phenol, this is produced by the Cumene process. Another way to make it is by dehydrogenating 2-propanol. This can dissolve nitrocellulose as it is an organic solvent. It is used to clean laboratory glassware. This is the simplest ketone. For 10 points, name this compound found in nail polish remover.

acetone

Question: A distributed model of this was developed for treating pyrolysis of biomass. This quantity is represented using double daggers after delta e. The e is raised to the negative this divided by RT in the Arrhenius equation. This quantity does not influence the equilibrium constant. This is required to reach the transition state. This is lowered by a catalyst, allowing the reaction rate to increase. For 10 points, name this energy needed for a chemical reaction to take place.

activation energy

Question: Ionization smoke detectors rely on the ability of these entities to ionize oxygen and nitrogen. In a nuclear fusion chain reaction, three of these entities combine to form an atom of carbon in a process that forms a beryllium intermediate. Ernest Rutherford fired a beam of this particle to develop the idea of an extremely small, dense nucleus in his gold foil experiment. Because of this particle's composition, it is sometimes referred to as a helium nucleus, and uranium decays by emitting this particle. For 10 points, name this particle which contains two protons and two neutrons.

alpha particle (accept helium nucleus before mentioned)

Question: The dihedral angles between these compounds can be represented using a Ramachandran plot and they are bound to enzymes called aaRS. They were created in an experiment that passed sparks through a flask containing water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen and are represented by a three nucleotide long codon. tRNA is so named because it transfer these compounds to the ribosome. These compounds were created in the Miller-Urey experiment and their only achiral member is glycine. For 10 points, name this group of compounds that form the building blocks of proteins.

amino acids

Question: In the presence of this compound, Nessler's reagent turns yellow. A solution of sodium in this compound is used in the Birch reduction. Its liquid form notably has a specific heat capacity higher than that of water. The reaction used to synthesize it most commonly employs an iron catalyst. It is oxidated in the Ostwald process for producing nitric acid, and this compound itself is produced by the Haber-Bosch process. For 10 points, name this trigonal pyramidal compound with formula NH3.

ammonia

Question: This site of the Sinus of Valsalva can become more and more attached to a nearby structure in a process called overriding. Overriding of this structure occurs in a fourfold affliction called the Tetralogy of Fallot. Many sufferers of Turner Syndrome see a narrowing of this structure, which may develop an aneurysm as a result of Marfan Syndrome. Near the navel, the iliac arteries split from it. Also the origin of the coronary arties, it carries blood away from the left ventricle. For 10 points, name this largest blood vessel of the body.

aorta [prompt on "heart" until "nearby structure" is read]

Question: The Shannon capacity has units of this per second. Twiddling refers to manipulation of them and flags are composed of them. Historically ASCII contained a parity one of these for error detection. Operations such as logical shift and boolean OR are known as this "wise" operations. Raster images are usually referred to as a pix or this map. For 10 points, name this signal binary digit, eight of which make up a byte.

bits

Question: A paradoxical result associated with this object whose name was coined by Paul Ehrenfest in 1911 is in part due to the relationship between frequency and the emitted energy of this object defined by the Rayleigh-Jeans law. That result suggests that at high frequencies the radiated energy of this body goes to infinity. Known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe" other equations which govern this object's properties include Wien's displacement and Planck's Law. For 10 points, name this object which absorbs all electromagnetic radiation incident upon it.

black-body

Question: One cause of this condition is hypoplasia of a certain nerve that leads to the organ involved. This condition can result from the "open angle" or "closed angle" form of glaucoma or from the clouding of cataracts. Sufferers of this condition possess acuity of 20/200 or worse. For 10 points, identify this medical condition that results in people using white canes, guide dogs, and Braille.

blindness

Question: One drug regimen often prescribed to combat this condition is known as CA and consists of cyclophosphamide and adriamycin. When this condition presents with an overexpression of HER2/neu, monoclonal antibodies may be used for treatment. Though not found in bones, Paget's disease may be a symptom of this condition. This condition is linked to expression of the BCRA genes, and advanced cases may require a mastectomy. For 10 points, name this malignant neoplasm that is detected via regular mammograms.

breast cancer [prompt on cancer; or malignant breast neoplasm]

Question: This principle's effects can be seen in a change in pressure through the use of a Cartesian devil. The value for this property is equal in a single system for all objects that have the same volume. This force has a value for a given object that is equal to total weight of all the fluid displaced by that object. That idea about this property is known as Archimedes' Principle. For 10 points, name this force that acts as an upward force against a submerged object and can cause some objects to float.

buoyancy [or buoyant force]

Question: An ionized form of this element produces solar absorption lines called the H and K lines. Its hydroxide is used as a flocculant and is part of a solution which is used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide. Its chloride is a byproduct of the Solvay process. Ions of this element are stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and play a role in muscle contraction. Its oxide is sometimes known as quicklime. For 10 points, name this element which is a component of bones and teeth.

calcium

Question: Along with sodium carbonate, this element's chloride is produced by the Solvay process. Ions of this element, important in muscle contraction, are found in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Its electron configuration is argon four S two. A crystalline form of its carbonate is called limestone. For 10 points, name this alkaline earth metal found it milk that is an important structural element in teeth and bones.

calcium [or Ca]

Question: Multiwalled structures formed from this element have a tensile strength up to 63 gigapascals. A related structure made out of 60 atoms of this element has an icosehedral shape and can be used to trap atoms of other elements. In addition to forming fullerenes, this element makes up graphite and diamonds. Organic compounds contain this element of which there is one atom in the gas that people breath out. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number six and symbol C.

carbon

Question: Palladium is commonly used as one of these species in most organic coupling reactions. A mixture of titanium and aluminum forms the Ziegler-Natta one used in polymerization reactions. In cars, platinum is used as one to convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. Chlorofluorocarbons act as one in the breakdown of ozone in the atmosphere. These species work by lowering the activation energy of a chemical reaction, and a common industrial one is iron in the Haber-Bosch process. For 10 points, name these chemical species which speed up a reaction.

catalysts

Question: The telencephalon is the embryonic structure from which this part of the body develops. In humans subdivisions include Broca's area and Wernicke's area, and executive functions are thought to be controlled by the basal ganglia in this part of the body. The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of this part of the brain. For 10 points, name this part of the brain that controls much of the higher level functioning of organisms and is usually paired with the cerebellum.

cerebrum [prompt on brain until mentioned]

Question: ?One sub-structure in this organelle develops with the aid of VIPP1, a protein present in every organism that contains this organelle, from Arabidopsis Thaliana to cyanobacteria. Besides a similarly-named compound, these organelles contain carotenoid pigments. Lamellae connect parts of the stroma, the fluid that surrounds stacks of thylakoids. These structures also consist of a fluid stroma, where NADP is reduced to NADPH after light energy is captured. For 10 points, identify these organelles that carry out photosynthesis in plants.

chloroplasts

Question: Csaba Horvath did pioneering work on the high performance liquid version of this technique. Other variants include gas and thin layer. Affinity beads or an ion exchange resin are common components in the column family of this technique. Commonly a stationary and mobile phase is used. An easy to do version involves putting a strip of paper partially in a solvent like water. Its name comes from its initial use in separating out plant pigments producing different colored bands. For 10 points, name this chemistry technique used in separating mixtures.

chromatography

Question: One rare type of these formations can be understood as solitons and are known as the "Morning Glory" type of them. The bases of these formations are home to "tags" or "scuds," which are considered the "fractus" type of these entities. One type of these formations are informally known as "mare's tails." Contrails are artificial versions of these formations, which may be "seeded" using silver iodide. For 10 points, name these formations that come in cirrus, cumulus, and nimbus types.

clouds

Question: One operator named for this property is used in the general definition of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which relies on the fact that this property does not apply to position and momentum operators. Hilbert names rings that have this property, while groups that exhibit this property are called Abelian. This property notably does not hold for multiplication of matrices, or division. For 10 points, name this mathematical property that states that the order an operation is performed on two numbers is irrelevant.

commutative or commutativity

Question: The Verneuil flame-fusion process was invented to create artificial versions gemstones composed of this material. This and magnesium are found in spinel. Emery is mostly composed of this. Iron and titanium make this blue, while chromium makes it red. This is a nine on the Mohs scale. This is aluminum oxide. For 10 points, name this crystal that makes up rubies and sapphires.

corundum [or aluminium oxide before mentioned; or ruby before spinel]

Question: This geological feature retreats in a process known as transgression, and it can grow outward and upward in progradation and aggradation, respectively. This feature can be described as cuspate, arcuate, bird-foot, or estuarine. This is the equivalent of an alluvial fan located in water. These features are characterized by large drainage basins, which deposit sediment. For 10 points, name this geological feature that occurs when a river flows into a lake or ocean, which is named for the shape of the Greek letter formed by the Nile one.

deltas

Question: The Maxwell-Stefan model of this applies for multicomponent systems. It is used to separate isotopes of uranium in gaseous compounds. This process is described by Fick's laws. This arises from the statistics of random particle movement and in the context of water and a semipermiable membrane it is called osmosis. For 10 points, name this movement from high concentration to low concentration.

diffusion

Question: A water aspirator or mechanical pump is used to reduce the time needed for the first step of this process in the "vacuum" type of this process. A Vigreux column is placed below the Y-adaptor in one type of the "fractional" type of this process. The "simple" type of this process heats a mixture of liquids, then condenses the resulting vapors. For 10 points, name this process of separating a mixture of liquids by boiling points.

distillation

Question: The value for a field created by this property can be calculated using the Biot-Savart Law (BEE-oh sah-VAHR). Two wires that have this property pointing in the same direction will be attracted to one another. The right hand rule gives the direction of this property along the thumb if the direction of the magnetic field is known. This value is equal to voltage over resistance according to Ohm's Law. For 10 points, name this flow of charge measured in amperes, which can also be direct or alternating.

electric current

Question: One measurement for this property utilizes the reciprocal of atomic volume and can be used to calculate molecular geometries, which is named after Sanderson. Another measurement of this property named after Allen uses the average energy of the valence electrons, and on that scale Neon has the highest value. The most common scale used to measure this property increases as one goes up and to the right of the periodic table and is named after Linus Pauling. For 10 points, name this property of atoms that describes the ability for an element to attract electrons.

electronegativity

Question: This property is the only one responsible for the direction of time's arrow. The change in this quantity multiplied by temperature and subtracted from the change in enthalpy gives Gibb's free energy. This property is measured in joules per Kelvin. The value of this quantity will either remain the same or increase according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. For 10 points, name this measure that can never decrease in a closed system, and which is a measure of the amount of disorder in a system.

entropy

Question: Chen's Theorem describes the representation of large instances of these. All degrees in a graph with an Euler walk have this distinction. The Goldbach conjecture states that these above a certain value can be written as the sum of two primes. Polynomials whose degree are of this type must have a global maximum or minimum. The positive examples of these correspond to the binary numbers whose least significant place is zero. For 10 points, name these numbers which are multiples of two and thus not odd.

even number [or even integer]

Question: One explanation for this event is supported by the Deccan Traps. Evidence from Hell Creek, Montana appears to support both prevalent hypotheses. The most widely-known explanation for this event was first hypothesized after the discovery of an unusually iridium-rich layer in the Earth's crust, and was further supported with the discovery of the Chicxulub ("CHICK-shu-loob") crater off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. For 10 points, a sudden increase in volcanic eruptions or impact with an asteroid are the two currently competing theories that explain what event that happened about sixty-five million years ago?

extinction of the dinosaurs [or K-T extinction; or equivalents]

Question: One algorithm that performs this procedure is Dixon's algorithm, while another is the general number field sieve. Shor's algorithm performs this on a quantum computer. One number that was recently subject to this procedure was RSA-768, so named because RSA encryption relies on the hardness of this. In general, objects that cannot undergo further this are called irreducible, but a special name applies for irreducible integers. For 10 points, name this mathematical procedure whose aim is to decompose a number into its constituent prime multiples.

factorization (accept word forms)

Question: One of these devices named for Buchner is often attached to a vacuum source. The Florence variety of this object is used for boiling and the Schlenk type features a side arm with a valve. One of these objects named for Dewar is notable for its effective insulation. One of the most popular varieties of these objects is sometimes known as the "E-spot" and is named for Erlenmeyer. For 10 points, name this multipurpose piece of glass laboratory equipment which can be used for measuring, mixing, or heating.

flasks

Question: This property has two coefficients, one of which is sometimes called limiting and is always used for an object that is stationary. Once that static coefficient of this property is exceeded by a force, the kinetic coefficient of this property is used. Those coefficients of this force are represented by the Greek letter mu (myou). This force is always perpendicular to the normal force. For 10 points, name this force that has a greater value for rougher surfaces and is the resistance to motion of an object across a surface.

friction

Question: These organisms maintain buoyancy through circulation of an ammonium chloride solution, and their reproduction may occur through the injection of spermatangia directly into the appendages of the female. This organism has among the largest eyes of any living species, and was not caught on video until 2006, and its only known predator is the sperm whale. For 10 points, identify this eight-armed, ink-secreting organism that is much larger than traditional varieties.

giant squid (prompt on "squid")

Question: Patients with McArdle's disease lack the enzymes needed to break down this material. The synthesis of this material makes use of a compound called UDPG along with an enzyme that creates branches along its linear framework; thus this material contains both 1,4 and 1,6 alpha glycosidic bonds. Marathon runners "hit the wall" when they deplete their supply of this material which is the animal analogue of plant starch. For 10 points, name this polymer of glucose found in the human body which is broken down by the hormone glucagon.

glycogen

Question: One equation for discovering this value multiplies the masses of two objects over the radius squared multiplied by this force's universal constant. When this weakest of the four fundamental forces is equal to the drag force on an object, that object will be at a terminal velocity. An object's weight is equal to mass multiplied by this force. For 10 points, name this force that acts as a downward acceleration on an object on Earth at 9.8 meters per second squared, which was studied by Isaac Newton possibly because of an apple.

gravity

Question: The solution for one type of this system approximates the Hamiltonian as the product of an operator and its Hermitian conjugate. The ground state energy for one type of this system equals h-bar times omega over two, via the solution to the Schrodinger equation. Another type of this system involves a second-order differential equation, which gives the solution that the position is a sinusoidal function of time. For 10 points, the pendulum and mass-on-a-spring are types of what system that comes in "quantum" and "simple" types?

harmonic oscillator [or quantum harmonic oscillator; or simple harmonic oscillator]

Question: One property exhibited by this molecule is the Haldane effect, and the A1C type of this molecule is used in monitoring the blood sugar levels of diabetics. One similarly named molecule performs a function similar to that of this protein in the muscles, rather than in the location associated with this protein, and variants of this protein are responsible for sickle-cell anemia. For 10 points, name this protein that, as its name suggests, binds and transports oxygen in red blood cells.

hemoglobin

Question: In eukaryotes, this specific process requires both Rad51 and Dmc1, which are necessary for the formation of Holliday junctions. One step in this process is branch migration. The mule's sterility results from its inability to correctly perform this process, which begins with a small break in the double-stranded DNA at the same point in both chromosomes. For 10 points, name this exchange of base pairs between two similar DNA sequences, a mechanism of genetic variation that occurs at the beginning of meiosis.

homologous recombination [or crossing-over; prompt on meiosis until "break"]

Question: Variations of this substance are created when different macromolecules bind to H antigen, the lack of which is known as the Bombay phenotype. One type of cell comprising this substance differentiates into types like neutrophil and eosinophil cells. This substance is also comprised of cells called thrombocytes, which facilitate coagulation. For 10 points, name this bodily fluid comprised of white cells, red cells, and platelets.

human blood

Question: This substance is dissolved in zinc chloride in a reagent used for classifying alcohols named for Lucas. With a zinc amalgam, it participates in the reduction of ketones to alkanes in the Clemmenson Reduction. It is mixed with nitric acid to make aqua regia. Though it is highly corrosive to skin, this acid, also called muriatic acid, is often used by high school students in classroom titration labs. It lowers the pH of stomach contents as a major component of gastric acid. For 10 points, name this strong acid symbolized HCl.

hydrochloric acid [or spirits of salt; accept muriatic acid before mentioned; accept HCl

Question: One equation that improves upon this law exhibits oscillatory behavior that is corrected by Maxwell's equal area rule. This law can be derived by assuming that kinetic energy is equal to one half Boltzmann's constant times temperature and by assuming that collisions off a wall are perfectly elastic. It can be rewritten to include density if one of the terms is substituted with total number of moles divided by molar mass. It is corrected by the Van der Waals equations and assumes that gases have negligible volume and zero interaction with one another. For 10 points, name this gas law typically written as PV=nRT.

ideal gas law

Question: The Redlich-Kwong equation is derived from this statement, which be modified using the acentric and compressibility factors. One modification of this statement uses a and b terms to represent intermolecular forces and volume. That modification of this law is called Van der Waal's equation. This equation of state combines Boyle's and Charles's Laws. For 10 points, name this law usually stated pV equals nRT that governs a namesake state of matter.

ideal gas law

Question: Calcium is released after this substance is released following the binding of IP3 to the endoplasmic reticulum. Frederick Sanger used trypsin to determine the structure of this hormone, which binds to its receptor to increase glycogen synthesis. It is produced in the beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. It is opposed by glucagon, which performs the opposite effect by increasing blood glucose levels. For 10 points, name this hormone lacked by sufferers of diabetes mellitus.

insulin

Question: According to Fubini's theorem, the order in which this operation is performed does not matter. The surface variety forms the basis of the divergence theorem, while the line form of this operation can be calculated with Green's theorem. If one of their bounds is positive or negative infinity, they are known as improper. Depending on whether or not their endpoints are defined, they can be either definite or indefinite, and they can be approximated using Riemann's sum. For 10 points, name this operation in calculus which can be used to find the area under a curve.

integration [or equivalents such as taking an integral]

Question: The nuclear version of this term refers to metastable excitations of atomic nuclei. The Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules are used to name one type of them. The terms cis and trans are used to describe geometric ones, which are of a stero type. The other main type are structural ones. For 10 points, name this term that refers to compounds that are similar in the number and type of atoms but differ in the arrangements of those atoms.

isomers

Question: In the Riedel equation, this quantity divided by RT makes up one half of the equation. A characteristic exponent of 0.38 is used in Watson's equation for calculating this quantity given its value at another point. This can be derived from a combination of the B and C Antoine constants along with the second virial coefficient. It looses its meaning beyond the critical point. This energy is used to overcome the intermolecular interactions between molecules. For 10 points, name this energy required to convert a unit of liquid into a gas at the boiling point.

latent heat of vaporization [or enthalpy of vaporization]

Question: In conic sections, one of these curves is used when defining the directrix. The degenerate case of the hyperbola is two of these curves intersecting and this curve is formed by intersecting two planes. When bounded by two endpoints they are known as segments and they can be written in point slope form or slope intercept form. For 10 points, name this type of curve which on the Cartesian plane can be written with the equation y equals ax+b ["A"-"X" plus "B"].

line

Question: To deal with this problem in languages like C++, the idiom "Resource Acquisition is Initialization" is implemented. If this problem is unresolved, it can lead to programs to encountering segmentation faults. Computer languages such as Java have automatic means to resolve this situation known as garbage collection. For 10 points, name this situation in which the eponymous resource cannot be reacquired by the operating system.

memory leak

Question: One indicator of this condition after death is the migration of neutrophil leucocytes to a certain area of the body, while one step in the exacerbation of this condition is the release of a large amount of cytokines. That step in this disease results in greater permeation of the blood-brain barrier, which in turn results in greater pressure inside the skull. For 10 points, identify this disease, an inflammation of namesake membranes surrounding the spinal cord and brain.

meningitis

Question: Leukotrienes C4 and D4 stimulate the release of this. The proteins associated with this have regions of tandem repeats of serine and threonine and also have membrane bound family members. It can expand upon leaving cells by calcium ions masking charges on the molecules in it. This is associated with the immunoglobulin class IgA. This is created by goblet cells and proteins in it are heavily glycosylated and have many disulfide bridges allowing a gel to form. The stomach secretes this with bicarbonate as a barrier. It usually includes lysozme and lactoferrin which impart anti-microbial abilities. Cilia help move this. Hagfish notably make this to evade predators and cystic fibrosis sufferers have problems stemming from production of a notably thick form. For 10 points, name this thick liquid excreted by parts of the body for protective purposes as seen during allergies.

mucus

Question: One important metabolic pathway named for a compound containing this element generates ornithine and its namesake substance, urea. Pyrimidine and purine bases, such as adenine and thymine, are often given a name that reflects their containing this element. Bacteria fix this element by forming ammonia. For 10 points, name this element found in the amino group of amino acids, whose diatomic form is an inert gas.

nitrogen [or N]

Question: A new class of these are known as pebble bed ones. The majority of these use a pressurized water design and an emergency shutdown of one is called a SCRAM. The United States no longer permits breeder ones. An important part of these are control rods and often they will have hyperbolic cooling towers. The waste from one of these is radioactive as is the fuel. For 10 points, what type of reactor uses the heat generated by a controlled chain reaction involving elements like uranium or plutonium to provide electrical or mechanical power.

nuclear fission reactor [or nuclear fission power plant]

Question: Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions uses the question of when this element can be said to have been "discovered" to illustrate the concept of the accumulation of anomalies. One person who discovered this element, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, presumed that it could leech phlogiston out of a substance. Its name is Greek for "acid-former," and was given by Antoine Lavoisier. It was called "dephlogisticated air" by its third discoverer, Joseph Priestley. For 10 points, identify this element whose reactions with other substances were discovered to be the source of combustion.

oxygen

Question: Cayley's Theorem states that every group is isomorphic to a group of these entities. They can be written as a product of transpositions. They are bijections from a set to itself and for a set of size n there are N factorial of them. The number of these that are of size k drawn from a group of n items is n factorial divided by quantity n minus k end quantity factorial. For 10 points, name these items which are different orderings without repetition of a list of items which should not be confused with combinations.

permutations

Question: The synthesis of plasmalogen occurs in this structure; a deficiency of that synthesis causes Zellweger's syndrome. In cells, beta oxidation metabolizing fatty acids with more than 22 carbons begins in this structure and ends once it reaches 8 carbons, only to be resumed by the mitochondria. One enzyme located in this organelle called catalase is needed for a disproportionation reaction that produces oxygen gas and water from a certain starting product. For 10 points, name this cell organelle which, as its name suggests, breaks down a compound with formula H2O2.

peroxisome

Question: This effect dominates in energy regimes under one mega-electron volt, while at higher energies Compton scattering and pair production are likely to occur. It was first observed by Heinrich Hertz while working with spark gaps. Mathematically, this effect is likely to occur when the threshold frequency of the electromagnetic radiation times Planck's constant is equal to the work function, usually represented by a lower case phi. For 10 points, name this effect where incident light on the surface of a metal releases electrons.

photoelectric effect

Question: One of these particles produces an electron and a positron in pair production. One of them is spontaneously emitted when a nucleus in an excited state transitions to a ground state. These particles were emitted in Thomas Young's double-slit experiment, which demonstrated wave-particle duality. They mediate the electromagnetic interaction. For 10 points, name these particles which make up light.

photons

Question: One type of protein named after this element has a voltage-gated type that causes the falling phase of the action potential, and is this element's namesake "channel." A cellular exchange between this element and another is motivated by an enzyme that is a "pump" for this element and sodium, while high quantities of this element are ingested upon drinking orange juice and eating bananas. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 19 and chemical symbol K.

potassium

Question: A particle known as X(3872) may consist of four of these particles, an unstable type of which is known as the "sea" variety. Experiments involving deep inelastic scattering provided the first significant evidence of their existence, and the Eightfold Way model was a predecessor of a model involving these particles. Due to color confinement, they cannot exist in isolation, but only in the form of hadrons. For 10 points, name these particles which come in six flavors, including charm and bottom.

quarks

Question: Deep inelastic scattering experiments gave evidence for their existence and a classification model for them was proposed by Gell-Mann. Because of a phenomenon known as color confinement, these particles are never found in isolation, and these particles have fractional charges of negative one-third or positive two-thirds. These elementary particles combine to form hadrons like protons and neutrons. Coming in six flavors, for 10 points, name these particles which have names like up, down, and charmed.

quarks

Question: The Steinhart-Hart equation models differences in this property at different temperatures. Materials that exhibit this property have a large "band gap" between the valence band and an upper band. Electrical components that vary in this property can be distinguished by a series of striped bands on the component. This quantity across a conductor equals voltage divided by current. The AC equivalent of this property is symbolized "Z," and is called impedance. For 10 points, name this property related to voltage and current by Ohm's law, which has units of ohms and measures opposition to the flow of direct electrical current.

resistance [accept insulator or word forms before "striped bands"]

Question: These structures are distinguished through use of the Svedberg limit, and in eukaryotes consist of four strands. One site important to these structures is the Shine-Dalgarno sequence, and locations on this organelle include the P-, A-, and E-sites. Synthesis of this organelle is controlled by the nucleolus, and it can be found in free and bound varieties. For 10 points, name this organelle, often found on the rough endoplasmic reticulum, that plays a vital role in the creation of proteins.

ribosome

Question: Grover's algorithm performs this action on a database in big O to the one-half N time. This action can be performed on a graph using a depth-first or breadth-first algorithm. Red-black trees are considered one of the self-balancing binary types of trees that perform it. One website that accomplishes it uses PageRank and recently introduced a new Instant service. For 10 points, name this action possibly performed by using a Boolean query and pressing the "I'm Feeling Lucky" button on an engine such as Google.

searching

Question: The Cauchy condensation test is used to test for one property of these entities. Joseph Fourier defined one which can be used to approximate periodic functions, while those in which the individual entities cancel each other out are known as telescoping. The ratio test can be used on them by taking the limit of the n+1 term divided by the n term and the Taylor can approximate a polynomial function. For 10 points, name this mathematical term denoted with an uppercase sigma which gives the sum of the terms in a sequence.

series

Question: Gamma Cassiopeiae variables such as Pleione, are known as this type of star as they throw off disks of gas. In UNIX, programs like Korn or Bash are this type of program as they allow one to execute commands. Those beloging to certain animals have an inner layer called nacre. One method for finding the volume of solids of revolutions that uses cylindrical elements are named for these. Many mollusks use these for protection and support. For 10 points, name this term that also names the levels in which electrons in an atom exist and objects commonly found on the beach.

shells

Question: In SI units and under standard conditions for air, this is equal to 20.05 times the square root of the temperature, but usually an approximation using a reference plus 0.6 times the temperature is used. This is equal to the square root of the ratio of bulk modulus to density. When this is exceeded a shock wave is created. At sea level this about 761 miles per hour. The ratio of an objects velocity to this is called the Mach number. For 10 points, name this quantity which is the rate at which an acoustic wave travels.

speed of sound [or velocity of sound]

Question: Brown-Sequard syndrome results from a hemisection of this structure. The inferior end of this structure contains the conus medullaris, whose projections are known as the cauda equina. It contains dorsal and ventral horns, as well as columns known as tracts. Like a related structure, it is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral sections. CSF is removed from this structure in a namesake "tap." For 10 points, name this part of the central nervous system that communicates between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.

spinal cord

Question: In one part of this organ a process known as dehiscence occurs, which causes the release of pollen grains from the stomium. Basifixed and versatile describe two ways that part can be attached to the filament in this organ. This organ, the Latin name for which means "thread of the warp," contains the anther. For 10 points, name this male reproductive organ of a flowering plant.

stamen

Question: In full-grown humans, ghrelin is produced in larger quantities in this region than in the pancreas. It's not the brain, but APUD cells in this organ produce large amounts of serotonin, and one end of this organ is bounded by the pyloric sphincter. One disease that can afflict this organ is combated by increased release of prostaglandin, and is called gastritis, and this organ is aided in its primary function by the use of hydrochloric acid. For 10 points, name this organ, the first stop for food after being swallowed.

stomach

Question: Mucus-producing foveolar cells are found inside this organ, which secretes a compound needed for vitamin B-12 absorption. That compound, the intrinsic factor, is secreted by the parietal cells, which also secrete a mixture of hydrochloric acid called gastric acid. At the lower part of this organ lies the pylorus, which connects this organ to the duodenum of the small intestine. For 10 points, name this organ which breaks down food sent from the esophagus and is divided into four chambers in a cow.

stomach

Question: The magnetic field of these objects can be described using the London equations, and they can be described mathematically with the Ginzburg-Landau theory. One theory describing them notes that electrons below the Fermi level can bind together to form Cooper pairs. YBCO is notable for acting as one of these materials above the boiling point of nitrogen. These materials experience an expulsion of their magnetic field in a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect and can be described by the BCS theory. For 10 points, name this type of material, which as its name suggests has an electrical resistivity of zero.

superconductor

Question: One of these phenomena discovered in 2006 is a leading candidate to be the first-discovered pair-instability type of them. Another type produces oxygen-rich remnants; that type, the core-collapse type, is responsible for the creation of the Crab Nebula. The thermonuclear type of these phenomena, also known as Type Ia (ONE-A), occurs in stars that have a mass less than one point four times that of the sun; that limit is known as the Chandrasekhar limit. For 10 points, name these massive explosions in which a star blows itself up.

supernovae

Question: Theories about the dynamics of these objects were tested through the Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis. These masses are able to stay in a relative vertical equilibrium through isostasy. Subduction zones can exist at the boundaries between these. Examples include the Nazca and Indo-Australian. These make up the Earth's lithosphere in the crust. They move very slowly and the San Andreas Fault is on the boundary between the Pacific and North American ones. For 10 points, name these geological slabs of rock that make up the surface of the earth and whose movements are described by tectonic theory.

tectonic plates [prompt on lithosphere before mentioned]

Question: In the body, a reaction that uses the enzyme arginase produces both ornithine and this product in a process that has a citrulline intermediate. Birds and reptile produce a similar acidified form of this compound which is excreted as a white mass. Sometimes known as carbamide, it contains two amino groups bonded to a central carbonyl group and was produced by Friedrich Wohler (VUH-ler) in a reaction that showed that organic compounds could be produced from simple starting ingredients. For 10 points, name this compound found in mammalian urine.

urea [or carbamide before it is read; or carbonyl diamide; or CH4N2O]

Question: Ionic forces explain why lithium oxide is an exception to this theory, which divides compounds into different categories based on a property called the steric number. As a consequence of this theory, methane does not assume a square planar structure since that would space the bonds 90 degrees apart from each other rather than the 109 degrees in its actual shape. Common shapes generated by this theory include see-saw, trigonal bipyramidal, and bent. For 10 points, name this theory of chemical bonding which as its name suggests claims that electrons want to be as far apart as possible.

valence shell electron pair repulsion theory or VSEPR ["vesper"] theory

Question: One of these objects is coordinate system invariant if its components contra-vary with the change of basis. Three of them form the standard basis for a three-dimensional Euclidean space. They can be added using the parallelogram rule, and the right-hand rule is used to determine the direction of the cross product of two of them. They also have a dot product, the result of which is a scalar. For 10 points, name these objects which have both magnitude and direction.

vectors

Question: One type of these entities is described by the KdV-Burgers equation. An infinite length string is assumed in d'Alembert's solution describing this physical phenomena. One self-reinforcing self reinforcing subtype are solitons. In one case, their velocity is equal to the square root of tension over density. Functions of these are solutions to Schrodinger's equation. Important characteristics of them include their namesake number, phase, and amplitude. For 10 points, name these periodic disturbances examples of which include light and sound.

waves

Question: After its creation during a stage called the germinal period this cell undergoes cleavage a mitotic form of division sometimes known as cleavage. A human form of this cell becomes a blastocyst on the fifth day and eventually becomes an embryo. These cells are synthesized from two gametes. For 10 points, name this term which refers to initial cell formed when an organism is produced by sexual reproductive process like fertilization.

zygote

Question: In the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction, the binding of this molecule allows myosin to detach from actin. The second messenger cyclic AMP is synthesized from this molecule by adenylyl cyclase. Pyruvate kinase is involved in the transfer of a phosphate group from PEP to ADP, which yields one molecule of this as well as one molecule of pyruvate in glycolysis. For 10 points, name this molecule which is a primary energy source for cells.

ATP [or Adenosine-5'-triphosphate]

Question: The two subclasses of extinct organisms within this class are Labyrinthodontia and Lepospondyli. These animals are the first to develop eardrums and use both buccal pumping and gas exchange on their skin for respiration. Some of these animals, such as axolotls, retain gills in the adult, though most organisms in this class eliminate gills in favor of lungs through the process of metamorphosis, which changes tadpoles to frogs. For 10 points, identify this class of ectothermic organisms that include salamanders.

Amphibians

Question: The organism that causes this disease has a toxicity related px01 plasmid. The British conducted experiments on this disease on Gruinard Island. Historical names for this disease have included ragpickers's and woolsorter's disease. This causative agent of this disease makes use of protective antigen, edema factor, and lethal factor. The bacteria makes use of macrophages to spread and the common laboratory test strain of it is the Ames strain. It comes in cutaneous, inhalation and gastrointestinal forms. Patients with this infection are given Cipro and the bacteria that causes it can survive through endospores. The spores of this disease are often found in the soil, but it is primarily known as a biological weapon. For 10 points, name this disease that was used in a 2001 terror incident.

Anthrax [or Bacillus anthracis]

Question: A common component found in this part of a computer is a TLB. This component of a computer using pipelining to achieve greater throughput. Important components include the FPU, the ALU, and registers. ARM and x86 are two popular instruction set architectures employed in them, the later of which is used by Intel. Multiple cores are used in modern examples, so multiple programs can be running at once. For 10 points, name this component of a computer that does most of the general purpose computations.

CPUs [or central processing units]

Question: A small value for the Rossby number indicates a significant effect caused by this force. Its root cause is the unequal rates of rotation for the Earth; the fastest rate is at the equator thus causing an object traveling south from the equator to deviate westward. The effect of this force is proportional to two times the rotation rate of the Earth times the sine of the angle of the latitude, thus this force causes no effect at the equator. For 10 points, name this apparent deflection of an object by inertial forces in a rotating frame of reference which is partially responsible for the rotation of hurricanes but not the flow of water in a toilet.

Coriolis force [or equivalents for force like "effect"]

Question: The locations of these events are classified using the Flinn-Engdahl regions. John Milne developed an early tool for studying these events. A law providing for the probability distribution of these events is partially named for Beno Gutenberg. These events frequently occur in areas named after Wadati and Benioff. The intensity of these events is measured using the Mercalli scale, while frequently these events cause the most damage at their epicenters. For 10 points, name these events once measured with the Richter scale, which produce devastating seismic waves.

Earthquakes [accept quakes, tremors, or temblors]

Question: Among the objects found in this region are Makemake (MAH-kay-MAH-kay) and Haumea (hoo-MAY-ah). Also found in this region are a group of "classical" objects called cubewanos (cue-bee-WAH-nose). This region is sometimes named after Kenneth Edgeworth and is believed to be the origin of Centaur objects like Chiron. Because of orbital resonance, it has a gap from 40 to 42 AU. The moon Triton is thought to have been captured by this region, due to its similarities with Pluto, the largest object in this region. Home to several trans-Neptunian objects, for 10 points, name this region of the solar system found between the Oort Cloud and Neptune.

Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt

Question: Eric Raymond wrote about the model used by this operating system's creator in the essay "The Cathedral and the Bazaar." There is a controversy over the proper name of this operating system, and Richard Stallman insists that its most common name is incorrect. Distributions of this operating system include Debian, Fedora and Ubuntu. Its namesake kernel is used in the GNU Project and was created by Linus Torvalds. For 10 points, name this Unix-like operating system whose mascot is a penguin.

GNU/Linux

Question: Isothermal compressibility is a second derivative of this quantity and surface tension is equal to the change in this with respect to the change in surface area. This is equal to the sum over all the components of a systems of the product of moles and chemical potential. Unlike a similar quantity, it does account for pressure and volume. E raised to the ratio of this to the negative product of RT gives the equilibrium constant. It is equal to the enthalpy minus the product of temperature and pressure. For 10 points, name this type of energy that is decreased in a spontaneous process.

Gibbs Free Energy

Question: The central coefficient in this law has dimensions of pressure divided by concentration and one can model the effects of temperature on this law's coefficient by integrating the van't Hoff equation. For ideal mixtures this law can be understood as a special case of Raoult's Law. For 10 points, name this eponymous law which relates the concentration and partial pressure of gas dissolved in a liquid, named after a British chemist.

Henry's Law

Question: One way of partitioning these is CIDR which uses subnet masking. ARP resolves these to MAC addresses. Today they are mostly 32 bits long, but 128 bit ones are starting to be used because the 32 bit ones are essentially exhausted. Those 128 instances are defined in version 6 of the protocol in which they are used. The loopback one is 127.0.0.1 (one twenty seven dot zero dot zero dot one). DNS is used to determine this of the server corresponding to a URL. For 10 points, name these addresses that are used in networks such as the internet.

IP address [prompt on partial answer; or Internet Protocol Address]