Safety Exam 2

reasons modeling

- analysis is the application of reason - two types of reason: inductive and deductive

methods of reducing the failure-rate:

1. derating 2. screening 3. timed replacements 4. redundant arrangements

OSHA: planning and responding to workplace emergencies

1. planning 2. chain of command 3. emergency response teams 4. response activities 5. training 6. personal protection 7. medical assistance

hazards classification

1. primary hazards 2. initiating hazards 3. contributory hazards

response activities

: Effective emergency communication is vital. An alternate area for a communications center other than management offices should be established in the plans, and the emergency response coordinator should operate from this center. Management should provide emergency alarms and ensure that employees know how to report emergencies. An updated list of key personnel and off-duty telephone numbers should be maintained.

planning procedures

A checklist for evaluating potential needs before an emergency should be devised. Some of the points to consider are: Types of hazards that could generate emergencies. Those hazards with greatest risks and potential losses. How each emergency could be aborted if one occurs. The extent of possible fatalities and injuries.

validity of statistical comparisons

A common problem in the use of statistics is that the person preparing them may present only one slanted aspect of the data, so readers receive erroneous impression. This can be intentional and unintentional. Many statistics are quoted, which leave out any measure of exposure. Considerations must also be given to types of exposure. Risks are not comparable across types of industry.

backout and recovery

A failure, error, or other adverse condition may eventually develop into a mishap. Actions that can be taken include: Normal sequence restoration, which may be possible, during which the situation can be corrected without damage. Inactivating only malfunctioning equipment. Suppressing the hazard by immediately reducing it to a level where immediate danger no longer exists.

application of monitors

A few of the applications of monitors are: Gas monitors to determine the presence of toxic or flammable substances. Infrared detectors to indicate the presence of hot spots or of flames.

detection

A monitor must be capable of sensing the specific parameter which has been selected in spite of all other stresses that could be expected to exist during an operation or in an environment. A detector may be capable of measuring extremely small concentrations of toxicants in a laboratory. The sensing function may be accomplished continuously, continually but intermittently, or intermittently at the desire of the operator. It must be capable of sensing and providing readings for only those parameters it has been selected for, and not be affected by any undesirable conditions.

procedure for emergency actions

A procedure must be developed for rapid reaction to any emergency by designated organizations and their personnel. Actions to be taken by designated personnel or organizations at the onset of an emergency should be established. All persons within a plant should receive instructions on what to do in case of an emergency. A supervisor, foreman, or other person should be assigned to ensure that everyone evacuated the area. Consideration should be given to the use of volunteer emergency personnel. Training must be undertaken to ensure that operator and rescue personnel are proficient in carrying out emergency procedures.

primary hazards

Actual failures of equipment or operations that cause accidents.

investigating board chairman's responsibilities

Among the responsibilities of the Chairman are: Direct and manage the investigation. Assign tasks to members of the investigating team; establish deadlines. Use abilities of a trained investigator to outline and expedite the work. Establish a "command post." Handle communication with the field organization and authorities. Call and preside over meetings.

safety committee duties

An effective committee can undertake numerous duties highly beneficial to the personnel of any company and the company itself. Considerations of Suggestions is a major function. Other functions include: Promoting accident prevention and safe performance within their own work areas. Assisting the safety engineer and immediate supervisor in investigating any reported safety deficiency. Assisting the safety engineer, supervisor, and other investigators in determining the cause of an accident or near miss. Reviewing as a committee and discussing the findings of any investigation board to determine whether they appear to be reasonable.

escape, survival, and rescue

An emergency may continue to deteriorate until it is necessary to abandon or sacrifice structures, vehicles, or equipment to avoid injury to personnel. Escape and survival refer to efforts made by personnel to save themselves using their own resources. Rescue refers to efforts made by other personnel to help those endangered.

interpretation

An operator must understand clearing the meaning of any readings provided by the monitoring devices. The operator must know whether a normal situation exists, an unusual condition is impending, or if corrective action must be taken.

screening

Another means of reducing failure is through close control of component quality. Eliminates those components that pass the operating tests for specific parameters but indicate they will fail within unacceptable times. Can be accomplished by visual inspection and measurement, among other ways.

other aspects of accident investigation

Any accident is an indication that the accident prevention program is not as good as it should have been. The first step in an investigation is finding the responsible person or persons. The second step is to find out why that person is responsible. What did this person or persons do wrong? The last step is to find out what corrective measures should be taken.

lockout, lockins, and interlocks

Application of Lockout/Tagout is required: when servicing and/or maintaining machines or equipment, if it is necessary to remove a guard or bypass safety device or interlock, if employee has the potential to be exposed to material being processed or machine cycle. These include some of the most common means of providing isolation of personnel, equipment, and operations. Lockout and lock-ins range from extremely simple devices such as bars on doors to those that are more complicated. Interlocks may be far more complex, since they generally involve stop and release machines

interlocks

Are provided to ensure that event A does not occur under the following conditions: Inadvertently: lifting the cover that prevents a critical switch from being activated accidentally. While condition C exists: an interlock may be placed on an access door or panel to equipment where high voltage exists. Before event D: such interlocks are desirable where the sequence of operation is important or necessary and a wrong sequence could cause a mishap.

critical incident technique

Based on collecting information on hazards, near misses, and unsafe conditions and practices from operationally experienced personnel. The technique consists of a capable reviewer interviewing personnel regarding involvement in accidents or near accidents. Accomplishes the same result as a review of a series of accident investigations: identification through personal involvement of hazards that could result in injury or damage.

hazards leading to emergencies

Besides listing the hazards, one must also calculate the types and magnitudes of possible outcomes. Possible initiating and contributing hazards should then be evaluated. Safeguards that have been already provided to minimize injury and damage must be evaluated for adequacy.

safety inspections

Can be either informal or formal. An informal inspection can be conducted by a supervisor who ensures every morning that the facilities and equipment are in proper and safe conditions and working order prior to the start of operations. A formal inspection can be conducted by plant safety personnel, safety committee members, plant or department managers, fire prevention personnel, insurance company engineers, etc.

general safety analysis

Companies that do not analyze potential hazards may not prevent accidents (which are preventable) and may find it difficult to defend themselves in a post-accident lawsuit. The standards to which the courts hold management is prudence, foresee-ability, and reasonableness. Prudence requires: Systems, products, and facilities be analyzed for safety Proper preventive measures follow the analysis If a company can demonstrate that they made a reasonable attempt to prevent what happened, the company has a strong legal position.

contributory hazards

Contributing factors which moved the process from initiating hazard to primary hazard.

examples of hazard control

Elimination (Most Effective Control) Substitution

emergency response teams

Emergency response team members should be thoroughly trained for potential crises and physically capable of carrying out their duties. Team members need to know about toxic hazards in the workplace and be able to judge when to evacuate personnel or when to rely on outside help (e.g., when a fire is too large to handle)

two person concept/buddy system

Employed as a mean of monitoring and safeguarding employees who undertake hazardous operations. Two methods have been employed: Two persons are assigned, each capable of undertaking the prescribed task and of detecting an incorrect or unauthorized step in a procedure. One person accomplishes a step and the other checks to make sure it was done correctly. It has been recommended that gas companies use a modified version of the two-man concept because of the high risk of accidents. Only one person is exposed to the hazard and the other acts as a lifeguard whose sole duty is to protect and assist the person or ask for assistance in hazardous situation.

personal protection

Employees exposed to or near accidental chemical splashes, falling objects, flying particles, unknown atmospheres with inadequate oxygen or toxic gases, fires, live electrical wiring, or similar emergencies need appropriate personal protective equipment.

isolation

Employs separation as an accident prevention measure. Isolation is used to separate incompatible conditions or material that together would constitute a hazard. For example: Fire requires the presence of a fuel, oxidizer, and ignition source. Isolating any one of these from the other two would eliminate any possibility of a fire. Isolating workers inside protective garments (suits) to prevent environmental injuries. Also used to limit effects of controlled energy release. i.e., when testing a small amount of explosive by placing it in a box or vault to contain the energy Frequently used to minimize violent release of energy, such as by use of: Distance: citing possible points of accidents far from persons, equipment, or vulnerable structures. Deflectors: lessen damage by deflecting or absorbing energy. Containment: prevent the spread of fire, such as sprinkler systems or water sprays. Barriers: metal barriers that are impenetrable.

hierarchy of hazard controls

Engineering Controls (Safeguarding Technology) Administrative Controls (Training and Procedures) Personal Protective Equipment Least Effective Control

fail-safe designs

Ensure that failures will leave the system unaffected or convert them so that no injury or damage can occur. Equipment failures produce a high percentage of accidents. Fail safe-designs can be categorized in three types: A fail-passive arrangement reduces the system to its lowest energy level. The system will not operate until corrective action is taken. Fail-active design maintains an energized condition that keeps the system in a safe operating mode until corrective and overriding action occurs. Fail-operational arrangement allows system functions to continue safely until corrective action is possible (this type of design is most preferable, since there is no loss of function).

training

Every employee needs to know details of the emergency action plan, including evacuation plans, alarm systems, reporting procedures for personnel, shutdown procedures, and types of potential emergencies. Any special hazards, such as flammable materials, toxic chemicals, radioactive sources or water reactive substances, should be discussed with employees. Drills should be held at random intervals, at least annually, and should include outside police and fire authorities.

redundancy

Failure rates can be often reduced by redundancy arrangements. Redundant arrangements (other than parallel or series redundancy): Decision redundancy: There are a number of types all based on three or five circuits having individual outputs and a monitoring unit which decides which action to take. Standby redundancy: an operative unit operates until a failure is indicated.

medical assistance

First aid must be available within 3 to 4 minutes of an emergency. Worksites more than 3 to 4 minutes from an infirmary, clinic, or hospital should have at least one person on-site trained in first aid (available all shifts), have medical personnel readily available for advice and consultation, and develop written emergency medical procedures.

corrective actions

Generally, the corrective action stated in a report is that the employee had been given a warning or additional instructions on how to carry out the work. Two major aspects of accident prevention usually omitted: Eliminating or controlling the hazard "Corrective action" by changing the procedures

determining existence of hazards

Hazard determination is the process of evaluating available scientific evidence in order to determine if a hazardous situation exists. Hazard determination does not involve an estimation of risk. The hazard determination provides the basis for the hazard information that is provided in MSDSs, labels, and employee training. Each product or operation may have certain inherent hazards, although the probabilities of accidents may be remote. Hazard determination may be done using experience or theoretical aspects.

failure minimization

Hazards sometimes are such that fail-safe arrangements cannot be provided. Methods to ensure possibilities of failures are minimized: Safety factors and margins: structures are designed with strengths far greater than those normally required. Failure-rate reduction: used to extend the lifetimes far beyond the proposed periods of use, thereby reducing probabilities of failures during operation. Parameter monitoring: a specific parameter, like temperature, noise, or pressure is kept under tight surveillance to ensure it is within specific limits.

contributing personnel

In any accident investigation chaired by a board, there will be other plant personnel who probably can contribute knowledge of what took place. The safety professional must investigate each accident or near accident, but may be asked to provide information pertinent to that accident. Besides members of the investigating board, there should be present: Safety professional Supervisor Any workers who were present An employee's representatives Plant engineering staff representative Specialist in investigating accidents of the same type

hazard-level limitation

In certain instances the type of hazard cannot itself be eliminated. However, the level of the hazard might be limited so that no injury or damage will result. Examples of methods by which hazard levels may be limited include: Providing overflow arrangements that will prevent liquid levels from getting too high. Adding diluents to air where flammable dusts are present to minimize the possibility of an explosion. Using sprays or other conductive coatings on material to limit the level of static electricity that can accumulate.

safe procedures

Include any warnings established by the analysis. Lower priority rating in means of preventing accidents because people tend to ignore operating procedures until they run into difficulty

initiating hazards

Initial conditions which started the chain of events to produce the primary hazard.

conducting the investigation

Investigators require that the equipment be available. Each member should have a copy of an accident report form to use as a checklist. Investigators should have paper for recording any notes, comments, or information that might be important. The investigation should be initiated as soon as possible after notification of occurrence. Investigator should not place total reliance on statements of only one witness.

new plants and equipment designs

It has been found that many problems can be avoided if plans are reviewed for safety aspects before any construction or change takes place. Some companies now require their safety personnel to review drawings for new facilities and equipment to ensure they meet legal requirements and good safety practices. After a problem in a similar plant is presented, prevention is more likely in the building of a plant similar to the one where the problem occurred. Even after construction is approved, on-site inspections should be periodically made during construction, after completion, prior to start of operations, and continually after that.

insurance claims

It is necessary that all cost be certified and evaluated so suitable claims can be submitted to the company's insurer. The need for quick and effective action is critical when a large loss has occurred. If an insurance adjuster is immediately available, he or she may be able to make a joint survey with plant personnel. This job cannot be left to the insurance company's adjusters; their jobs are to minimize the size of claims against the insurance company.

maintaining awareness

It is necessary to maintain an almost continual program of keeping personnel alert to safe practices. Hazardous areas must be posted with suitable warning signs. Large billboard-type signs regarding the need to avoid and prevent accidents can be located at employee entrance to the plant or points of entry into buildings. Posters for display at frequented locations are available at low cost from organizations such as National Safety Council and National Fire Protection Association. Small folders or booklets from safety organizations, insurance companies and the federal government can be given to each employee as he or she enters the plant or at other appropriate times. Slips with printed safety messages can be added to pay envelopes or attached to pay checks. Safety displays can be located at entrances to buildings, lunch rooms, or similar locations. Articles or photographs regarding safety matters or accidents can be posed on bulletin boards. Large advertisement type displays can be included in company newspapers. Accident prevention competitions can be held between departments and plants based on low accident and injury rates.

risk communication

It is not enough to simply appraise plant safety and risks. Risks must be communicated to the workers in the plant and people in the community. OSHA's "Hazard Communication Standard" of 1988, the Environmental Protection Agency's EPA's, and the "The Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act" of 1996 place requirements on the employer to know plant risks, appraise them, and communicate them. It is possible for risks to be exaggerated, so by properly communicating them, this problem is avoided.

reasons for investigations

It is often easy to observe the easiest explanation for an event. For example, if a worker is killed because the chain responsible of holding tons of cement broke, it is easy to say it was the chain's fault. However, investigations yield information regarding other aspects. Maybe the supervisor was aware that the worker was putting himself in danger and did not do anything about it. This is the valuable information obtained through investigations. In such cases there may be investigations by representatives of organizations with different interests, each attempting to ensure that their client is not at fault. These representatives might include: The union that represents the worker The employer The employer's worker's compensation insurer The insurer of the third party State agencies

methods of accident investigation

Logical Method: writing down the obvious information. Management Oversight Risk Tree General technique: Fault Free Analysis

risk assessment

Managers want to know the risk involved in making certain decisions. The theory is that the computed economic risk on an accident should justify any expenditure for the proposed safeguard. Such estimates are made using a cost/risk/benefit/effectivity analysis. Two numerical methods of risk indication are frequently used: Those involving relative methods Those using probabilities of occurrence Probabilities of accidents can sometimes be developed for new operations, so the proper assessment of these might help reduce the risk associated with it.

OSHA standards

Many of the OSHA standards have been stipulated to minimize accidents and injuries and therefore emergencies. Provisions for egresses and exits and for their marking are probably the best examples.

general comments on safety committees

May be composed of both management and workers. A workers' representative committee is probably the most knowledgeable of safety needs, but management backing will produce the greatest effect.

warning means and devices

Means of avoiding accidents by attracting or focusing attention of the operator on an item that constitutes a hazard. Warnings are required by law to inform workers, users, and the public about any dangers that might not be obvious. Every method of identifying and notifying personnel that a hazard exists requires communication. All human senses are used for this purpose. ANSI recently issued a standard for safety signs, which require signs to alert persons to: The type of hazard & the degree of seriousness of the hazard. The consequences that can result from the hazard What to do to avoid the hazard

communications

Means of communication must be established by which to alert the emergency organizations' personnel that their services are required. Considerations should also be given to installation or purchase of a secondary communications system for emergency use. Alarm systems must be provided

monitoring the hazards

Monitoring devices can also be used to keep any selected parameter, such as temperature or pressure, under surveillance to ensure it remains at proper levels. Monitors can be employed to indicate whether: A specific condition does or does not exist. The system is ready for operation and is working adequately. The measures parameter is normal or abnormal. A required input has been provided. A desired or undesired output is being created. A specific limit is being met or exceeded. The actions in the overall process of monitoring involve 4 steps: Detection Measurement Interpretation Response

in-depth training

More formal and extensive type of training. Training may be undertaken by: Attendance at schools Visits by members outside the department Consultants who may make suggestions on existing capabilities For example: OSHA standards for construction require the presence near work sites of either medical personnel or persons who have valid certificates in first aid training. An employer may find it necessary to send employees to receive this type of training to those organizations that provide necessary certification.

intrinsic safety

Most effective method of avoiding accidents. Can be achieved by either of two methods: Eliminating the hazard entirely. Limiting the hazard to a level below which it can do no harm. Intrinsic safety is a design technique applied to electrical equipment and wiring for hazardous locations. The technique is based on limiting energy, electrical and thermal, to a level below that required to ignite a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture. Intrinsically safe equipment and wiring shall not be capable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a flammable or combustible atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignitable concentration.

Hazard Communication standard

OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) includes all workers exposed to hazardous chemicals in all industrial sectors. Workers have both a need and a right to know the hazards and identities of chemicals they are exposed to. The employer must have a hazard communication program to deliver this information to employees through container labeling

problems with quantitative rates

Often so incomplete that they can lead to inaccuracies. Because we are so focused on large quantities, sometimes there can be misconstrued information in specific cases that are not identified when seeing the whole set of data.

checklists

Often used to evaluate many of the safety features in industrial plants. Can be prepared from various sources. Even workers new to safety matters can prepare them simply by asking themselves what they would like to know. The question asked in checklists are usually very broad, requiring more details. For the safety engineer, the use of accident statistics is less productive in appraising plant safety than knowledge of hazards, controls, and checklists.

weak links

One that is designed to fail at a level of stress that will minimize and control any possibility of a more serious failure or accident. The most common use of a weak link has been with electrical fuses, which have been designed to fail before more valuable parts are damaged.

failure-rate reduction

Operating components will not last forever. Actions should be taken to limit failures while the system is operating. Methods of reducing the failure-rate: Increasing life expectancy of components. Screening Timed replacements Redundant arrangements

utilities

Personnel must know how to control utility services so they cause no damage but are available when required. For example, cutting power from high voltage lines.

adapting plans to the plant

Planning for contingencies in different plants will entail many of the same considerations, but plans will differ because of the different hazards that might be present.

problems with validity of statistics

Probabilities are based on past performance. To be statistically valid, quantitative data must have been collected either over long periods or from a large number of similar activities.

deratingg

Reducing the stresses under which components will operate will reduce failure rates and increase their reliability. Principal cause of operating failures is load factor: ratio of actual load to rated load. Derating can also be accomplished through the use of components whose capacity is greater than actually required.

existing plants and equipment

Regardless of whether the plant is new or old, the safety person should ensure: Plants meet OSHA standards and local codes. Electrical systems comply with the provision of the National Electric Code and other designated codes. Pressure vessels are designed according to the provision of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME Code. Firefighting equipment is installed and maintained as required. Newly purchased equipment meets OSHA standards. High-energy process vessels are separated from other equipment in case of a fire. Fire exists are provided and maintained. Emergency equipment and their locations are provided with easy access and are checked periodically. Ventilation equipment is kept clean. Adequate work spaces are provided between pieces of equipment so that employees can have free passage and there will be no physical interference that may create errors and cause accidents. Hazardous operations are isolated so they do not constitute dangers to other personnel or activities.

controlling hazards

Regularly and thoroughly maintain equipment Ensure that hazard correction procedures are in place Ensure that everyone knows how to use and maintain personal protective equipment Make sure that everyone understands and follows safe work procedures Ensure that, when needed, there is a medical program tailored to your facility to help prevent workplace hazards and exposures Safety of the system will be improved more by controlling hazards. Types of hazards can be categorized and are presented in an order of priority of means to eliminate or reduce conditions that cause accidents. Each situation must be evaluated for affecting factors so that a desirable and satisfactory solution can be achieved.

The behavior based safety approach

Relies heavily on classical psychology of learning and motivation thorough stimulus and response, response conditioning, and response generalization. Human behavior comes from: Personal factors Situational factors BBS has been applied in the industrial setting with success to reduce unsafe acts. In BBS, both workers and management must participate actively and "buy into" the process. This approach focuses on observable behaviors, provides positive activators to motivate workers, and applies continuous interest and evaluation.

indicating plant hazards

Safety engineers should know which areas are more hazardous and label them. Common practice is to color-code different levels of hazards (high, moderate, and low) found in a specific area. "High-hazard" places should be visited most frequently by engineers to ensure that everything is in order and nothing needs to be corrected.

The regulatory approach: safety rules

Safety rules are codes of conduct to avoid injury and damage. Safety rules must be provided to govern the conduct of employees, and they must be enforced. Certain criteria should be observed in the preparation of safety rules: a. Number of general rules should be low b. Rules for a participating operation should be included in the procedures for conduct of that operation. c. Rules should be clear and unambiguous. d. Stipulate only those rules currently required. e. Stipulate only those rules that will be strictly enforced.

safety zones

Safety zones and evacuation routes should be established. Protective structures can be provided beforehand to house personnel during the emergency.

safety training

Should begin with the new employee and continue throughout the time he or she is with the company. Training should include information on and review of: Company safety rules and practices. Employees' duties and rights. Necessity for strict observance of warning signs. Emergency signals and their meanings. Location of medical offices Benefits under workers' compensation laws. Method of use of emergency equipment. Company programs to aid employees in purchase of safety equipment. Means of asking assistance in time of need. One of the most effective means of safety training is through periodic safety meetings.

characteristics of effective warning sign

Should say what the danger is What is the consequence of not obeying the sign How to mitigate the hazard

damage minimization and containment

Some hazards must be accepted. Some of the protective means of minimizing and containing effects of accidents include physical isolation, personal protective equipment, energy absorbing mechanisms, weak links, and escape and rescue.

isolation, lockouts, lockins, and interlocks

Some of the most commonly used safety measures. They are predicated on three basic principles, or combinations of the first two: Isolating a hazard once it has been recognized. Preventing incompatible events from occurring, from occurring at the wrong time, or from occurring in the wrong sequence. Providing a release after suitable and corrective action has been taken.

abandonment and rescue

Sometimes the measures established beforehand do not apply or do not best confront the situation. A state may be reached where attempts to correct the situation should be abandoned and effort be redirected to safeguarding personnel. Provisions should be supplied in the event that personnel are not able to evacuate on their own.

hazard elimination

The best way to control a hazard is to eliminate it and remove the danger. This can be done by changing a work process in a way that will get rid of a hazard; substituting anon-toxic chemical for a toxic substance; having workers perform tasks at ground level rather than working at heights; and other methods that remove the hazard all together. A very common example of hazard elimination and accident avoidance is by good housekeeping. Tripping over misplaced objects, slipping on wet or oily surfaces, and spontaneous ignition of trashy or oily rags can be eliminated simply by keeping facilities clean.

suggestion programs

The employee can report orally a suggestion or submit a written suggestion to his or her supervisor, safety office, union representative, or OSHA office. For this to be effective, the employee's effort should be acknowledged. If accepted, the employee should be rewarded. Safety information may be obtained through employee questionnaires.

chain of command

The employer should designate an emergency response coordinator and a backup coordinator. The coordinator may be responsible for plantwide operations, public information and ensuring that outside aid is called. Having a backup coordinator ensures that a trained person is always available. Employees should know who the designated coordinator is

quantitative appraisals

The employment of accident statistics and frequency and severity rates. Requires time for data to build up in order to have enough for this type of interpretation.

PPE

The equipment people might use to protect them from hazards. The need for personal protective equipment can be divided into three categories: For scheduled hazardous operations a mask used for welding. For investigative and corrective purposes Against accidents equipment used for mountain climbing.

measurement

The parameter a device senses can be in either one of two ways (on or off) or it can be present at certain levels. The interpretation of these levels is the measurement of the levels.

acceptance of risk

The risks that persons will accept vary according to the expected benefits. Categories of risks: Involuntary: one by which an individual subjects himself to another person's judgment. Voluntary: one freely accepted by an individual on the basis of the individual's own values and experience.

equipment and transportation

The types of equipment for which personnel should be provided to meet the specific types of emergencies must be determined. The most effective locations for the emergency equipment must be established. Plans must be made for transportation services which might be required. Routes to safety must be determined and analyzed for adequacy for the number of personnel that might be using them. A map should be provided to each mobile unit that must respond to an emergency.

medical responses in emergencies

The well-being of workers should be the prime consideration in any emergency. Preplanning and training for emergencies will be invaluable for assisting any disabled person. First-aid measures should be initiated immediately in the event of a life-threatening injury, in addition to: Moving an Injured Worker: one person can pull a victim to safety on a blanket, or sheet of heavy plastic. The victim should not be pulled sideways but in the direction of the body's axis. Aiding the victim: supervisors and workers should turn over the care of the victim to paramedics, physicians, or nurses when they arrive. Emergency medical facilities: workers should be aware of where the medical facilities are located in a company. Organizational cooperation for emergency control: everyone must work together in aiding the victim.

safety factor and margins

Theoretically, if an item is to withstand a prescribed stress, making it strong enough to withstand three or four times that stress would reduce the number of failures and accidents. A safety factor is expressed as a ratio of strength to stress.

accident reports

These can be biased because sometimes the person responsible for an accident is the one who files the accident report, so he or she might willingly omit any important information. More appropriate persons for filling out these reports would be safety engineers or committee members who represent all areas of interest.

the emergency planning and community right-to-know act (EPCRA)

This act was passed in 1986 to improve emergency response to accidental releases of toxic and/or hazardous chemicals into the environment. EPCRA requires the facility to notify the proper commissions in the event that of an emergency. Requires owners/operators to notify the SERC and LEPC when they have chemicals designated as "extremely hazardous substances" on their premises, or in the event of accidental release of the substances.

timed replacements

To maintain constant failure rates before wearout failures begin, it is necessary that components be replaced in a timely fashion. Replacements must be timed because it can be wasteful to do so too early. Means to effectively make timed replacements: Using data from laboratory testing of similar components Noting component degradation or drift in operational systems The SOAP (Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program) was developed with this concept in mind to determine when aircraft engines should be overhauled.

union participation

Unions often pressure companies to have effective safety regulations. - unions are effective in passing/changing laws and influencing OSHA, local is more concerned with hiring/firing/wages

response

When a monitor indicates a normal situation, no response is necessary. When corrective action is required, the more information and time available to interpret it, analyze it, reach a decision, and respond, the more likely will be the proper and effective decision and response. Data from the monitor should indicate as early as possible the approach of an adverse condition

planning

Where required by some Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards, firms with more than 10 employees must have a written emergency action plan; smaller companies may communicate their plans orally. Top management support and the commitment and involvement of all employees are essential to an effective emergency action plan.

employee participation

Workers should participate in establishing safety rules because they are usually the ones who are most aware of safety issues and hazards. They are the most concerned about hazards because their own lives and health are involved.

deductive reasoning

backwardly deduces the causes of an event

inductive reasoning

forwardly induce the consequences of an event

national safety council calculation of frequency and severity rates

frequency rates=(number of accidents *1,000,000)/(man-hours of employee exposure) severity rate=(total days charged *1,000,000)/employees hours of exposure

lockins

keeps a person, object, force, process, or other factor from leaving a restricted zone.

lockouts

prevents an event from occurring or prevents a person, object, force, or other factor from entering an undesired zone.

risk any organization takes may be calculated by:

risk=P*E*L P=probability of an accident E=exposure of a person to an accident L=probable loss resulting from an accident