SCOM 123H Final Study Guide

Explain how our perceptions of others can influence our communication with them (first impressions, primacy effect, negativity bias, attribution error, stereotyping, and self-fulfilling prophecy).

1) First Impressions: You never get a second chance • Speed dating: reducing date selection process to first impressions o First impressions are unavoidable; the brain makes these judgements instantly for there is a "survival value in such quick determinations" • Primacy Effect: Power of first impressions o Positive first impressions can help excuse future concerns and create positive relationships that are more likely to be maintained Conflicts can be solved competently o Some first impressions can match impressions formed over a period of time Ex: People were shown 10 second snippets of Harvard graduate students teaching undergraduates and formed opinions that were mirrored in ratings given by the students who observed the teacher for an entire semester • Primary effect- the tendency to be more influenced by initial information about a person than by information gathered later. o Once the primary effect and the fact that the brain makes automatic judgements is understood then you can make an effort to consider more than someone's first impression People anticipate being held accountable for their first impressions of others • Accuracy of first impressions, it depends o A few minutes of thoughtful observations can be accurate Ex: When a person reads for as little as 3 minutes out loud, their intelligence level can be discerned Personality and verbal skills can be determined quickly Tidy living space = dependable and disciplined o Quick glances and gut feelings about someone may not be accurate Ex: a quick interview is not a good way to predict future job performance instead of knowledge tests, peer ratings, and sample work • Negativity Bias: Agile, funny, compassionate, and fat o Complex impressions are not as accurate as broad impressions o Negativity bias- our strong tendency to be influenced more heavily by negative than by positive information Built into our brains as negative information could potentially threatening where positive information is pleasant and provides little risk One poorly chosen word or phrase in an interview can completely ruin the candidate's chances at the job Sometimes, however, one bad trait should outweigh a plethora of good traits • Ex: a seemingly great roommate that has a violent temper - Negativity bias can be overridden in the same way as the primacy effect; presenting an abundance of positive information that contradicts the negative. It can also be overcome by being mindful of the negativity bias, consequently reducing it and increasing positive judgements 2) Attribution Error: No so kind to others • Tendency to judge others more harshly than ourselves • Fundamental attribution error- overemphasizing personal traits and underemphasizing situations as causes of other people's behavior • Finding fault in others' behavior but excusing our own failings • Ex: Do you attribute being homeless and begging to bad luck or weak character and/or laziness? • Couples can experience problems due to attribution error, with one citing personal traits such as laziness and sloppiness for a lack of housework where the other uses situations such as stress at work or exhaustion o Attribution error can kill a relationship o Happy relationships: associate nice behaviors with personal traits (caring, giving) and negative behaviors with situations "he snapped at me because he was under a great deal of pressure" o Unhappy relationships: associate nice behaviors with situations "she only picked up my clothes for me because she had nothing better to do with her time" and negative behavior in dispositional terms "he was irritable with me because he is a very impatient person" • We assume character flaws without adequately considering the influence of situational forces 3) Stereotyping others: the dangers • Unintended Prejudice: instant decision making It's the brain's natural response to make quick decisions but it can be dangerous as seen in the active shooter simulations. Black unarmed men were twice as likely to be shot than an armed suspect. This comes into play with police officers shooting young unarmed black men. The study proves that even if you are against said biases and try not to have prejudices simply knowing about common ones can subconsciously make you susceptible to them. • Benevolent sexism: the façade of positive stereotyping Positive sexism, viewing women as pure and something to be taken care of and shown affection, protected, but only if they behave in the conventional manner. People like this are often going to resist women wanting to be in places of power. Trying to combat this can turn into hostile sexism or antipathy towards women who are viewed as usurping men's power. Women can easily fall prey to this thinking men are just being nice. • Self-fulfilling prophecies: creating negative consequences Accidentally making a stereotype become true by expecting it to happen. A woman who expects a man to be sexist will be hostile towards him. This causes the man to respond negatively making him appear sexist. • Combating Stereotypes: Communication Solutions 1- confront stereotypes head on but in a calm suggestive manor. Calling someone a racist does not solve the situation it just adds hostility and the aggressor becomes defensive. Appeal to fairness. 2-contact theory. Becoming familiar with/ interacting with members of stereotyped groups can diminish prejudices. Works best under these circumstances. Differences in group members are de-emphasized. Contacts more than just superficial. Contact between relative equals. Groups pursue a common superordinate goal, one that requires both groups to achieve a desired goal.

What are the critical elements of a competent speech introduction?

1. Gain attention- a clever quote, using questions, a simple visual aid (show and tell), tell a relevant story, refer to remarks made by someone introducing you. 2. Make a clear purpose statement- provides the intent for your entire speech. 3. Establish your topics significance. 4. Review your main points- a preview.

What are the critical elements of a competent speech conclusion?

1. Summarize the main points 2. Refer to the introduction (bookending the speech) refer to story or stat at the end again. 3. Make a memorable finish: sizzle don't fizzle (try to end in similar fashion as you begin with an attention grabber)

Define the general purpose, specific purpose, and central idea in public speaking.

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How do constructive versus destructive communication climates influence relationships?

A communication climate is the emotional atmosphere, the pervading or enveloping tone that we create by the way we communicate with others. A constructive communication climate is composed of two general elements: a pattern of supportiveness or a confirmation of the worth and value of others and to help others succeed. It is we-oriented. A destructive communication climate is composed of a pattern of closedness (unwilling to communicate) and a pattern of defensiveness (protective reaction to perceived attack on self-esteem). Protected reaction in three forms: Deny validity on accuracy of perceived attack, counterattack the person whose communication diminishes your self-perception, and you withdraw- you psychologically and/ or physically remove yourself from a threatening arena.

What is the difference between a fact and an inference?

A fact is a true statement whereas an inference is a conclusion about the unknown based on the known.

How does one avoid plagiarism?

Citing all sources on the reference page and in text. Also citing even when paraphrasing. Use your own word choice.

Define communication competence and describe the skills needed to be an effective and appropriate communicator.

Communication Competence- engaging in communication that is perceived to be both effective and appropriate in a given context. Some skills needed are effectiveness (having a we orientation), appropriateness (rules), and knowledge. Sensitivity, commitment, ethics.

Explain the two aspects of every message: Content and relationship.

Content is what is actually said and done. Relationship is how that message defines or redefines the association between individuals. EX: statement of respect vs. disrespect, they both have the same content but different relationship

Define what culture is.

Culture is a learned set of enduring values, beliefs, and practices that are shared by an unidentifiable, large group of people with a common history.

How does culture influence nonverbal communication?

Emotions are expressed differently in different cultures. Such as thumbs up or the middle finger.

What are the criteria for evaluating supporting material?

I. Evaluating supporting materials: criteria a. Use high quality supporting materials and this requires a careful assessment b. Three primary criteria to evaluate supporting materials i. Credibility ii. Relevance iii. Sufficiency c. Fallacies- errors that occur d. Credibility: is it reliable and valid? i. Credibility is determined by reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy) ii. Questionable statistic: Does It make sense? 1. Question every stat you plan to use in your speeches iii. Biased source: Grinding an ax 1. Special-interest groups or individuals who stand to gain money, prestige, power, or influence if they advocate a certain position on an issue are biased sources iv. Incomplete source citation: something to hide? 1. A complete citation of the source of your information adds credibility to your claim, if your source is qualified. 2. Includes as minimum, the name of the source, the specific title or expertise of the source to build credibility, and the specific publication in which the evidence can be found with the relevant date of the publication v. Expert quoted out of field: no generic experts 1. Quoting experts outside of their field runs the substantial risk of promoting inaccurate claims supported by invalid and unreliable supporting materials e. Relevance: does it follow? i. Relevance- they must relate directly to the claims made ii. Two fallacies that fail the relevance test: 1. Ad Hominem Fallacy: Diversionary Tactic a. It is a personal attack on the messenger to avoid the message 2. Ad Populum Fallacy: Arguing from Public Opinion a. argument that concludes that a proposition must be true because many or most people believe it iii. Sufficiency: Got Enough? • Sufficiency: a judgement • There is no precise formula for determining it • Generally, high quality supporting materials and solid reasoning meet the sufficiency criterion 1. Self-Selected Sample: Partisan Power • Random sample: a portion of the population chosen in such a manner that very member of the population has an equal chance of being selected • Self-selected sample: attracts the most committed, aroused, or motivated individuals to fill out surveys on their own and answer polling questions • Often involve huge numbers of respondents, but increasing this number does not improve the results unless you survey EVERYONE in the population • Ex: printing a survey in a magazine and collecting those that have been returned • Any statistics from a poll or survey that depends on respondents selecting themselves to participate provides results that are insufficient to generalize beyond the sample • Online surveys produce unrepresentative results because they attract partisan respondents 2. Inadequate Sample: Large Margin of Error • Margin of error: a measure of the degree of sampling error accounted for by imperfections in sample selection-goes up as the number of people surveyed goes down • Only applies to random samples, NOT self-selected samples • Adequate sample size will have a margin of error no greater than plus or minus 3% to 4% o A poll of 1000 people typically has a MOE of about plus or minus 3% • Ex: poll reports a result of 65% then the actual result would be between 62%-68% • Increasing the sample size improves the chances that the poll is accurate only if the sample is random 3.Hasty Generalization: Arguing from Example • Vividness effect: when the outrageous, shocking, controversial, and dramatic event distorts our perceptions of the facts • Ex: A single airline disaster can provoke fear of boarding a jetliner and cause people to take their cars instead while the rate of dying in a car crash is higher than the of dying in a plane crash • Hasty generalization: when individuals jump to a conclusion based on one or only a handful of examples, especially vivid ones o A single study is insufficient to draw any general conclusion 4. Correlation as Causation: How Related • We are prone to draw causation (x causes y) from mere correlation • Correlation: a consistent relationship between two variables • Suggest possible causation, but correlations alone are an insufficient reason to claim probable causation • Variable: anything that can change 5. False Analogy: Mixing Apples and Oranges • False analogies: occur when a significant point or points of difference exist despite some superficial examples of similarities between the two things being compared

How does a speaker create credibility and identification in an introduction?

If you have expertise relevant to your purpose statement that is unknown to your audience, don't hesitate to mention it. Credibility is created primarily by developing your purpose with logic and supporting materials throughout the body of your speech.

What are the most common myths about communication?

Myth 1 is that communication is a cure-all. This is a myth because relationships can't always be fixed by better communication. "Is a means to an end, not an end in itself." Myth 2 is that communication is just common sense. This is a myth because people say that they knew something already however most times they wouldn't be able to say the information before they were told it. Hindsight bias- since communicated all our lives, we think that things are just common sense. Myth 3 is that communication quantity = quality. This is a myth because relentless communication is more communication, but it is not necessarily better. Serial arguments- conflicts never go away and arguments about conflicts recur year after year.

What are some guidelines for managing speech anxiety?

Need to prepare and practice as procrastination increases anxiety. Gain perspective- understanding the progression of your speech anxiety. There are four stages- anticipation phase: right before your speech. The confrontation stage: when you begin and face the audience and start speaking. Adaptation stage- symptoms steadily diminish as you get more comfortable. The release stage- recognizing that your anxiety will diminish drastically. Some other things that will help- realizing that it won't be perfect, staying positive, relaxation techniques, positive visualization. Systematic desensitization- involves incremental exposure to increasingly threatening stimuli coupled with relaxation techniques.

Define persuasion.

Persuasion is the communication process of converting, modifying, or maintaining the attitudes and/or behavior of others.

What are the components of a competent presentation body?

Researched evidence that is effective and appropriate, signposts and transitions, internal summaries.

Define self-concept and describe how it is formed (reflected appraisal, significant others, and society).

Self-concept- the sum total of everything that encompasses the self-referential term me. A central point of reference for your communication with others (if you see yourself as a person with integrity, then you are more likely to speak up when premises are made. It is a social construction and is relatively stable, especially when you reach adulthood. Reflected appraisal refers to messages you receive from others that assess your self-concept. EX: it is hard to see ourselves as smart if everyone important to us says that we are not. People close to you can have a particularly powerful effect on your self-esteem. Additionally, for society, we constantly compare ourselves to others and if we compare our self to someone who is superior, then our self-esteem will diminish.

What is self-disclosure?

Self-disclosure is the process of purposefully revealing to others personal information about yourself that is significant and that others would not know unless you told them

Explain what a self-serving bias is and how it influences our interactions (personal traits, situations).

Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute out successful behavior to ourselves (personal traits) but to assign external circumstances (situations) to our unsuccessful behavior.

What are signposts and transitions, and how are they used in constructing a presentation?

Signposts are organizational markers that indicate the structure of a speech and notify listeners a particular point is about to be addressed. "A first cause... A second cause...". Transitions connect what was said with what will be said with a word, phrase, or sentence. They are bridges between points.

Describe the characteristics of an appropriate or effective oral citation.

The initial citation of a source should be complete but after that they can be abbreviated. EX: "According to the previously cited GAO reports..." i. The name of the source ii. The specific title or expertise of the source to build credibility iii. The specific publication in which the evidence can be found with the relevant date of the publication.

What are some of the influences on perception (gender, culture, past experiences, mood, and context)?

There are stereotypes for gender, race and predictable behavior for certain people based on context.

How might the use of slang, jargon, and euphemisms influence the understanding of a communication message?

They tend to confuse or can produce ineffective communication through misunderstanding. As not everyone may know the meaning behind the different slang, jargon or euphemisms.

Explain how culture influences communication.

Value dimensions- varying degrees of importance placed on those deeply felt views of what is right, good, and worthwhile. Individualism vs collectivism, how some countries view tipping

Explain how nonverbal channels of communication differ from verbal channels.

Verbal communication is single-channeled (using only words), but non-verbal communication is multi-channeled. (many ways to express anger, the finger, shaking fist, making a face, etc.)

How does the oral style of communication differ from a written style?

When we speak, we usually use simpler sentences than when we write. Oral style is highly interactive while written is not. Oral style is usually less formal than written style.

How are the preparation and presentation of a speech influenced by audience analysis?

You need to gear how you present your speech based on who is listening and for what purpose they are listening. Your delivery depends on who you give it to.

Explain the abstracting process (sense experience, description, inference, and judgment).

a. Abstracting Process- the process in which we formulate vague conceptions of our world by leaving out details associated with objects, events and ideas. i. Sense experience- of the physical world. It is inherently selective and limited. Approximating our physical world ii. Description- verbal reports that sketch what you perceive from your senses. Your description of the world is an approximation of the world as you perceive it, not an exact duplicate. Something is always lost because you are describing to others what is in your head, not reality. The more details you leave out, and general your description is, the more abstract you are. iii. Inference- conclusions about the unknown based on the known. iv. Judgement- subjective evaluations of objects, events, or ideas.

What are the components of doing an audience analysis, and how is a speech adapted based on those components (demographics, values, beliefs, & attitudes)?

a. Captive Audience- ex. Required speech for a class, formal ceremony, meeting in a place of business b. Committed Audience- voluntarily assembles because they want to invest their time in listening to and being inspired by the speaker Ex. Church, political rallies c. Contrary Audience- Hostile Listeners- ex. school board meetings i. Demeanor must be constructive, must be well prepared, don't counter-attack d. Concerned Audience- eager listeners- care about the issue, motivated audience- be informative e. Casual Audience- Unexpected Listeners- stop out of curiosity or casual interest stay until they're bored or uninterested- must connect with listeners

Define the basic communication elements contained in the communication models (channel, sender, receiver, message, encode, decode, context, fields of experience, noise, and feedback).

a. Channel- medium through which a message travels, such as oral or written i. Face-to-face is channel rich and text-only is channel lean b. Sender- initiator and encoder c. Receiver- decoder d. Message- stimulus that produces meaning e. Encode- puts ideas into spoken language f. Decode- translate the spoken language g. Context- The environment in which communication occurs; the who, what, where, when, why, and how of communication. h. Fields of Experience- cultural background, ethnicity, geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences 1. The more experiences we have in common, the less chance there is for misunderstandings i. Noise- interference with effective transmission and reception of a message j. Feedback- The receivers verbal and non-verbal responses to a message

Describe the three dimensions related to communicating "empathy."

a. Cognitive empathy (perspective taking)- you try on the view point of another to gain understanding of his or her perspective b. Emotional empathy (emotional understanding)- you participate in the feelings of others c. Compassionate empathy (concern for others)- you care what happens to others

What are the primary dimensions of credibility (competence, trustworthiness, dynamism, and composure)?

a. Competence- the audience's perception of the speaker's knowledge and experience on a topic i. Enhance this by identifying background, experience and training relevant to a subject. Also, citing of sources, speaking fluently and avoid vocal fillers b. Trustworthiness- refers to how truthful or honest we perceive the speaker to be i. Increase your trustworthiness by arguing against your self-interest 1. If you take a position on an issue that will cost you money, a job or a promotion, most people will see that you are honest c. Dynamism- the enthusiasm, energy, and forcefulness exhibited by a speaker i. Don't have too much enthusiasm or not enough d. Composure: audiences tend to be influenced by speakers who are emotionally stable, appear confident and in control of themselves, and remain calm even when problems arise during a speech i. Too much composure may be seen as hard-heartedness or insensitivity and showing emotion appropriately may enhance your credibility with some listeners 1. The appropriateness of displaying composure depends on the context

Define listening by its basic elements (comprehending, retaining, and responding).

a. Comprehension- accurately discriminating speech sounds (phonemes) and understanding these sounds as words. b. Retaining- remembering what you hear. Can't remember everything. c. Responding- listening is a transactional process btw speaker and listener. Verbal and nonverbal responses

Explain the problems that can interfere with competent informational listening (conversational narcissism, competitive interrupting, glazing over, pseudo-listening, and ambushing).

a. Conversational narcissism- the tendency of listeners "to turn the topics of ordinary conversations to themselves without showing the sustained interest in others' topics". The shift response is a competitive vying for attention and focus on self by shifting topics. Me-Oriented. The support response is a cooperative effort to focus attention on the other person. We-oriented. b. Competitive interrupting- occurs when we dominate the conversation by seizing the floor from others who are talking. c. Glazing over- occurs when listeners' attention wanders and daydreaming occurs. The blank stare. d. Pseudo-listening- attempt to disguise inattention to the listener. Faking it. e. Ambushing- occurs when we listen for weaknesses and ignore the strengths of a speaker's message.

Describe the listening response styles associated with empathic listening and non-empathic listening.

a. Empathetic: Probing, supporting and understanding i. Probing- seeks more information from others by asking questions ii. Supporting- includes "expressions of care, concern, affection, and interest, especially during times of stress or upset." There is reassurance, agreement, praise, assistance and validating feelings. iii. Understanding- requires a listener to check his or her perceptions for comprehension of the speaker's message to check accuracy. Paraphrasing. b. Non-empathetic: Evaluating, Advising, Interpreting, and content-only i. Evaluating- makes a judgement about the persons conduct, and it assumes a standard of evaluation has, or has not, met. ii. Advising- tells people how they should act iii. Interpreting- You are expressing what you think is the underlying meaning of a situation presented to you and explaining that meaning for the other person. iv. Content-only- comprehends the literal meaning of messages from others but doesn't recognize the feelings involved. It ignores feelings.

List the characteristics of an ethical communicator.

a. Ethics- a system for judging moral correct-ness by using an agreed upon set of standards to determine what constitutes right and wrong b. 5 ethical characteristics: i. Respect ii. Honesty (cultural expectation) iii. Fairness (equal treatment) iv. Choice (make own choices) v. Responsibility (consider the consequences of our communication on others) we-orientation

Define ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, and multiculturalism.

a. Ethnocentrism- seeing your own culture as the center of the universe and others as insignificant or inferior b. Cultural relativism- views cultures as different but not deficient c. Multiculturalism- promotes the value of diversity and insists that all cultural groups be treated with respect and as equals.

What are the main types of supporting materials used in speeches?

a. Examples- hypothetical, real b. Statistics- make them concrete, make comparisons c. Testimonies- experts, non-experts and eye witness

What impact do various delivery considerations have on an audience (eye contact, vocal variety, verbal fluency, poise, dynamism)?

a. Eye contact- an important aspect in a speakers credibility. Often a problem with slide show as they tend to look at the slides instead of the audience. b. Vocal variety- can influence mood of your audience. Audience feels the emotion that the speaker is giving off. c. Verbal fluency- suffering from vocal fillers. d. Poise (body movement)- too little body movement can anesthetize an audience. Excessive body movement can be a distraction. Strive for a balance and focus on proper gestures. e. Distracting behaviors- it won't destroy the quality of speech unless the behavior is beyond weird. Delivery should match the context of your speech.

Explain the major differences between feminine and masculine cultures.

a. Feminine culture- affection, nurturance, sensitivity, compassion, emotional, expressiveness. They are affectionate- collectivist. Have less rigid gender roles and more overlap. EX: Sweden, Denmark, Norway, etc. Both men and women communicate to emphasize relationship over power b. Masculine culture- dominance, ambitiousness, assertiveness, competitiveness, drive, Individualistic. More rigid and distinct gender roles. EX: Japan, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico. Men communicate in ways to enhance their esteem (speak often, control the floor, interrupt), women express support, encourage and listen well.

Explain the major differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

a. Individualistic- a "me" consciousness. Individuals see themselves as loosely linked to each other and largely independent of group identification. Motivated by their own preferences, needs and goals. Emphasis placed on the self: self-help, self-efficiency, self-actualization, etc. b. Collectivist- a "we" consciousness. Individuals see themselves as closely linked to one or more groups. Commitment to valued groups is paramount. People take notice of a person's place in the hierarchy of the group. Individuals often downplay personal goals in favor of advancing the goals of a valued group. Emphasis on community, loyalty and responsibility.

Define the three types of listening (informational, critical and empathic).

a. Informational- attempts to comprehend the message of a speaker. The goal is to understand what the speaker has said. b. Critical- the process of evaluating the merits of claims as they are heard. c. Empathetic- requires us to take the perspective of the other person, to listen for what that person needs or wants.

Identify and discuss how the three Aristotelian modes of proof (ethos, logos, and pathos) are used in persuasive speeches.

a. Logos (defined by Aristotle): logic bolstered by supporting materials. This is used in persuasive speeches to reflect competence. b. Ethos: credibility c. Pathos: emotional appeals

Explain the major differences between low-context and high-context communication styles.

a. Low-context- relies less on context, verbally explicit, say what you mean. (He did not say he needed lunch "that sucks") Individualistic culture (me culture) b. High-context- relationship that guides the conversation, less specific, rooted in relationship and context. (Read between the lines and bring him lunch) Collectivist culture (we culture)

Explain the differences between the major delivery styles (manuscript, memorized, extemporaneous, and impromptu).

a. Manuscript- A completely written out form of your speech. Appropriate if you need to know phrase by phrase and cannot make a mistake like political candidates. Drawback is that it takes a lot time to practice it and it looks too formal or scripted. Also, can get buried in the manuscript and forget to make eye contact. b. Memorized- A short toast, an acceptance speech, or a few key lines are good to memorize. Memorizing however runs the risk of forgetting parts of it. Making a memorized speech sound natural and not memorized takes a lot of experience. c. Impromptu- one delivered without preparation. Some guidelines to help-anticipate impromptu speaking. Draw on your life experience and knowledge for the substance of your remarks. Formulate a simple outline for an impromptu speech. d. Extemporaneous- delivered from a prepared outline or notes. Advantages: The speech sounds spontaneous as they are glancing at their notes to gather thoughts. Permits greater eye contact with the audience. Allows the speaker to respond to audience feedback as it occurs. One drawback is that learning to speak from notes or an outline takes practice.

What are the types of visual aids that can be used during a speech?

a. Objects- no substitute for the actual object of your speech. Limits- some objects are too large, some are impractical to bring to most speaking venues, some are dangerous and/or illegal, some are offensive, inanimate objects are preferable to live ones b. Models- can act as effective substitutes for when objects are too large, too small, too expensive or too rare. EX: bring in a large model of teeth c. Graphs- they are visual representations of statistics in an easily understood format. Several kinds- a bar graph (compare and contrast two or more items or shows variation over a period of time), a line graph (showing a trend or change over a period of time), pie graph (percentages for a part of a whole). Effective if they are uncluttered and must be immediately understandable to the audience d. Maps- helps audience members see geographic areas, most effective ones are large, simple and directly relevant. It should be exact to be effective e. Tables- orderly depictions of stats, words or symbols in columns or rows. Can provide easy to understand comparisons of facts and stats. Can become easily cluttered and not as visually interesting as a graph f. Photos- effective substitute to bringing in the real thing. Limits- small photos are worthless, should be large for everyone to see easily.

Explain the two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and their relationship to culture.

a. One claims that we are the prisoners of our native language, unable to think certain thoughts or perceive certain ways because of the grammatical structure and lexicon of our language. (linguistic determinism) b. The other claims that the grammar and lexicon of our native language powerfully influence, but do not imprison, our thinking and perception. (linguistic relativism) i. Different tenses of verbs and size of vocabulary.

Why is reciprocal sharing important?

a. One-way self-disclosure leaves you vulnerable, and the other protected b. However, if both parties self-disclose, the 'playing fields' are even

Explain the major types of nonverbal communication (kinesics, paralanguage, territoriality, proxemics, and haptics).

a. Paralanguage- voice communicates information about our age, sex, socioeconomic status, ethnicity and regional background. Three classifications: i. Vocal characterizers: laughing, yawning, yelling, moaning, crying, whining, belching. ii. Vocal qualifiers: volume, tone, pitch, resonance, rhythm and rate iii. Vocal Segregates: "uh-hum" "uh" "hmm" b. Territoriality- a predisposition to defend a fixed geographic area, or territory, as one's exclusive domain. Putting a jacket on a chair or putting up a sign. c. Proxemics- the influence that distance and territoriality have on our communication. d. Haptics- the study of touch i. Types of touch: Functional-professional is the least intense btw doctors and patients. Social-polite touch occurs in initial meetings such as handshakes. Friendship-warmth touch is the most ambiguous and leads to most misunderstandings. Love and intimacy touch- for close friends, family, spouses and lovers. e. Kinesics- the study of both facial communication and gestures.

Explain the major differences between low-power distance and high power-distance cultures.

a. Power difference dimension: variations in the acceptability of unequal distribution of power in relationships, institutions, and organizations. The extent to which members of a culture, both relatively powerful and powerless, endorse the society's overall level of inequality determines its place on the PDD. b. Low-power distance- aka horizontal culture, values relatively equal power sharing and discourages attention to status differences and ranking in society. Challenge authority, using power legitimately. In low PD cultures, power disparities are minimized, things are more casual, first name basis, ex. Professors that have you call them by their first name. Individualistic culture c. High-power distance- aka vertical cultures, have a relatively strong emphasis on maintaining power differences. Authorities are rarely challenged, the most powerful are thought to have a legitimate right to exercise their power, and organizational and social hierarchies are nurtured. In high PD cultures, power disparities are maintained, call people by their title, disagreement is not tolerated as much, ex. Friendship between a worker and a boss is inappropriate, teacher/student when it's formal. Collectivist culture

Identify and discuss how propositions of fact, value, and policy are used in persuasive speeches.

a. Proposition of Fact: alleges a truth, such as "Open carry gun laws would provide significant protection against criminals" b. Proposition of Value: calls for a judgement that assessed the worth or merit of an idea, object, or practice "Abortion is immoral" c. Proposition of Policy: calls for a significant change from how problems are currently handled "Smoking should be banned in all public places"

Explain how nonverbal communication functions in relationship with verbal communication (repetition, substitution, regulation, contradiction, accentuation).

a. Repetition- We say "yes" and then nod our head. All of the non-verbal cues repeat the verbal message. Repetition diminishes ambiguity and enhance accuracy of message perception. Consistency of verbal and nonverbal communication increased the clarity and credibility of the message. b. Accentuation- Use vocal emphasis such as "Please don't touch anything." Also pounding your fist on a table as you express your anger nonverbally repeats the message but also emphasizes it. Accentuating enhances the power and seriousness of verbal messages. c. Substitution- Sometimes nonverbal cues substitute for verbal cues such as yawning. d. Regulation- Conversation is regulated by nonverbal cues. Turn taking is signaled by long pauses at the end of sentences and eye contact in the direction of the person who should speak next. e. Contradiction- "Sure, I love you" is a mixed message. The words say one thing while the nonverbal cues say something else. Mixed messages produce tension and anxiety.

Explain the role of rules in communication contexts.

a. Rules create expectations for appropriate behavior. They can be explicitly stated or implied through the patterns of behavior. Violation of implicit rule often leads to explicit statement. b. Rule violations- negative reactions, higher status person has greater flexibility to loosen rule, some rules may need to be modified

What is a perceptual schema (prototype, stereotype, and script)?

a. Schemas- mental frameworks that create meaningful patterns from stimuli b. Prototypes: Best Case i. Categorizing helps us make sense of the world 1. One way we categorize is by forming prototypes in our mind 2. A prototype is the most representative or "best" example of something a. EX: you have prototypes of a "boss from hell" or a "best friend" or a "great movie" 3. Poorly matched prototypes are bad news a. One person's idea of a great date may be to go to a baseball game while someone else's may be to go to a club... there may not be a second date 4. A problem may also develop if a prototype is the same a. EX: The prototype of a "perfect romance" may set an unreachable standard and lead to disappointment c. Stereotypes: Generalizing About Groups i. A stereotype is a generalization about a group or category of people ii. Stereotypes organize individuals according to categories (race, age, gender) 1. They can be both positive and negative d. Scripts: Predictable Behavior i. A script is a predictable sequence of events that indicates what we are expected to do in a given situation 1. When someone hands you a menu, you do not say "what is this". You know that you are expected to choose a meal. 2. The more predictable the series of events, the more scripted it is 3. A mental script works the same as a movie script a. Scripts for greeting people, expected behavior in class, for asking someone on a date, etc 4. Scripts allow us to behave without having to think too carefully

Explain the three elements of the perceptual process (selecting, organizing, and interpreting). "S.O.I"

a. Selecting- a sensory ability and changes over time. Selective attention- hearing what you want to hear (conscious). Inattentional blindness- focused on a set of stimuli, blind to other stimuli (unconscious) i. Perception is inherently subjective and selective b. Organizing- prototypes (best example of something). Stereotype (categorize people). Scripts (sequence of events such as how to order something) in order to change outcome, need to change script. It is a predictable behavior (script) c. Interpreting- attribution- assigning a cause to behavior. We attribute two principal causes to behavior: 1. Dispositional causes (the personal characteristics, or traits, of the individual) 2. Situational causes (the environment). Fundamental attribution error- We over emphasize the dispositional traits and underestimate the situation as causes of other people's behavior.

Explain the problems that can interfere with competent critical listening (skepticism, true belief, and cynicism).

a. Skepticism- a process of listening to claims, evaluating evidence and reasoning supporting those claims, and drawing conclusions based on probabilities. b. True belief- a willingness to accept claims without solid reasoning or valid evidence and to hold these beliefs tenaciously even if a googol of contradictory evidence disputes them. c. Cynicism- is naysaying, fault finding, and ridiculing. Smells flowers and looks for coffin.

Explain how connotative meaning differs from denotative meaning.

a. Source of Signal Reactions: Connotative Meaning i. The source of most signal reactions is connotative meaning • Connotation = personal meaning of a word • Three dimensions of connotation a. Evaluation (good/bad) b. Potency (strong/weak) c. Activity (active/passive) • Connotative meaning differs from denotative meaning • Denotation is shared meaning (basically a dictionary definition meaning)

What should be considered when choosing a topic (speaker, subject, occasion, and audience)?

a. Speaker- choose a topic that interest or excites you. Its hard to successfully fake interest in front of an audience. Also talking about being old as a young person is an awkward fit. b. Audience- An audience might find a topic difficult to relate to or appreciate. The increasingly multicultural makeup of audiences provides an additional risk for inappropriate topic choice. Topics that are inappropriate include offensive, trivial, demeaning, or encourage illegal, unethical behavior. c. Occasion- When speaking at a particular event, the topic has to be appropriate.

Explain the four elements common to all languages (structure, productivity, displacement, and self-reflexiveness).

a. Structure- most important element. Grammar- the set of rules that specify how the units of language can be meaningfully combined. Grammar is divided in phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. i. Phonology- describes the patterns of sound in a language. ii. Morphology- describes how morphemes (the smallest unit of meaning in language) are constructed meaningfully from phonemes. Free morpheme- friend (can stand alone). Bound morpheme- un (needs something else like friend to make unfriend) iii. Syntax- govern combining words into phrases and phrases into sentences. Subject-verb-object order is typical in English. iv. Semantics- the set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences. b. Productivity- The capacity of language to transform a small number of phonemes into whatever words, phrases, and sentences that you require to communicate your abundance of thoughts and feelings. c. Displacement- Ability to use language to talk about objects, ideas, events, and relations that don't just exist in the physical here and now. d. Self-Reflexiveness- the ability to use language to communicate about language

What distinguishes informative speaking from persuasive speaking?

a. The difference between informative and persuasive speech is your general purpose b. The general purpose of an informative speech is to teach your audience something new, interesting, and useful. c. The general purpose of a persuasive speech is to convince your listeners to change their attitude/behavior A. Noncontroversial Information: Staying Neutral • Informative speeches should usually not stir disagreement • However, some information can cause disagreement (ex: speaking about the billions of dollars used on alternative medical therapies can upset those who view alternative medical therapies as quackery) B. Precursor to Persuasion: No Call to Action • If your informative speech arouses the concern of your listener, then your speech may act as a precursor/steppingstone, to a persuasive speech advocating strong action o Even if this is the case, your speech itself should still be neutral, and draw no conclusions

Explain the differences between the three models of communication: linear, interactive, and transactional. (Its LIT)

a. The linear model- The straight-arrow view i. A sender (initiator and encoder) who sends a message (stimulus that produces meaning) through a channel to a receiver (decoder) in an atmosphere of noise (interference with effective transmission and reception of a message). Picture on page 10 1. Choice of channel- makes a difference 2. Different types of noise- physical noise (startling sounds, poorly heated rooms), physiological noise (sweaty palms, pounding heart), psychological noise (preconceptions, biases, stereotypes), semantic noise (word choice that is confusing, incomprehensible or distracting). Linear model- broadens definition of noise to include interference that goes beyond loud or irritating noise. b. Interactive Model- The Ping-Pong view i. This model includes feedback as communication is a two-way process, participants are both senders and receivers. Picture on page 12 ii. Fields of experience- cultural background, ethnicity, geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences 1. The more experiences we have in common, the less chance there is for misunderstandings c. Transactional Model- The sender-receiver impact view i. Assumes that people are connected through communication as they engage in a transaction. Picture on page 13 ii. Communication influences all parties involved iii. Defined in relation to each other as both sender and receiver. EX: a teacher needs students, a parent needs kids iv. Continually influence one another and develop a relationship to one another as they communicate

How do depth and breadth of self-disclosure influence the building of relationships?

a. The type of bond you have depends on Breadth and Depth i. Breadth is the range of subjects discussed ii. Depth is how personal you become when talking about particular subjects

Identify the organizational pattern used in speeches (topical, spatial, causal, chronological, problem-solution, and Monroe's Motivated Sequence).

i. Topical Pattern: By the Subjects • A topical pattern shapes information according to types, classifications, or parts of a whole • Ex: PURPOSE STATEMENT: To explain the three types of prisons in the US 1. The first type is minimum security 2. The second type is medium security 3. The third type is maximum security • A topical pattern doesn't suggest a particular order of presentation for each main point ii. Chronological Pattern: According to Time • A chronological pattern suggests a specific sequence of events • When a speech includes a biographical sketch, step-by-step sequence, or recount a historical event, chronological pattern is the way to go • EX: PURPOSE STATEMENT: To explain the renovation plan for our local downtown city center iii. Spatial Pattern: According to Space • Explaining directions to a particular place requires spatial pattern • EX: PURPOSE STATEMENT: To explain how to load up a backpack for camping 1. Certain items go on bottom 2. Certain items best packed in middle 3. Certain items pack well on top 4. Few items fit well lashed to outside of pack Focuses on segments of space iv. Causal Pattern: Who or What Is Responsible • There are two casual patterns of organization • Cause-effect pattern looks for why things happen then discuss the consequences • Ex: PURPOSE STATEMENT: To explain the causes and effects of staggering tuition increases at US colleges • Effect-cause pattern begins with effects then moves to what caused the event • Ex: PURPOSE STATEMENT: To show that good grading systems create learning deficiencies v. Problem-Solution Pattern: Meeting Needs • Explores nature of problem and proposes possible solutions • Ex: PURPOSE STATEMENT: To argue for a flat income tax to replace the current graduated income tax 1. present income tax system has several serious problems 2. A flat income tax will solve these problems vi. Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern: Knowing Why and How • Expands on problem-solution pattern by exploring causes of problem and addressing these causes in the solution • Ex: PURPOSE STATEMENT: To advocate a government-sponsored program to prevent hearing loss among teenagers and young adults 1. Teenagers and young adults are suffering serious hearing loss 2. There are several causes of this hearing loss 3. A government sponsored program to prevent hearing loss is critical vii. Monroe's Motivated Sequence: Five-Step Pattern • 1. Attention: create interest; use attention strategies • 2. Need: Present a problem to be solved and relate it to your audience • 3. Satisfaction: Provide a solution to the problem that will satisfy your audience • 4. Visualization: Provide an image for your audience of what the world would look like if your solution is implemented • 5. Action: Make a call to action; get the audience involved and committed

What are the rules for constructively and appropriately self-disclosing and responding to self-disclosure?

ii. Counterproductive Goals for Self-Disclosure: Inappropriate Me-Orientation 1. Manipulation: You'll Disclose if I Disclose • Research shows that one person self-disclosing leads to another self-disclosing • Pretending to reveal personal information, can get someone else to actually disclose information, and hence is an ethical issue • Ex: Russian spy was student at ODU, and managed to get both professors and other students to trust him, as he self-disclosed lots of information, which made him seem transparent and trustworthy 2. Catharsis: Getting Secrets Off Your Chest • This is 'spur of the moment' self-disclosing, with the purpose of 'getting it of your chest' or to relieve guilt • This is a poor reason to self-disclose, especially if it may ruin a personal relationship iii. Appropriate Self-Disclosure: When to Open Up; When to Shut Up 1. Trust: Can You Keep a Secret? • When you self-disclose something to a person, you risk that person using it against you • You should trust anyone you disclose really personal information too 2. Reciprocity: Two-Way Sharing • One-way self-disclosure leaves you vulnerable, and the other protected • However, if both parties self-disclose, the 'playing fields' are even 3. Cultural Appropriateness: Openness Not Universally Valued • Japanese and Chinese cultures, for example, tend to be more hesitant to self-disclose because of concerns that it might be detrimental to effectiveness of communication transaction 4. Situational Appropriateness: Considering Context • You shouldn't disclose personal information in a large public setting, that not appropriate. • Ex: A girl was assigned a speech about an event that changed her life. The weekend before, she had sexual fulfillment for the first time, and proceeded to disclose that to the entire class and describe it in detail 5. Incremental Disclosure: Bit by Bit • If you blurt your whole life in one sitting, it may send the other running, as it overwhelmed them ('test the waters')

What are guidelines for the competent usage of visual aids?

• Aids not distractions o Keep aids simple Complex tables, graphics and maps are not suitable for powerpoints, they are suitable for speeches (esp. short ones) o Make aids visible If the back of the room can't see it, it's too small 44pt for headlines 32 pt for main points 24 pt for subpoints o Make aids neat, attractive, and accurate Make aid of good quality; no sloppy drawings, posters, tables, etc Check spellings o Don't block the audience view Don't stand in front of the visual aid or read from it with your back to the audience. Instead stand to the side reading/glancing from an angle to that everyone in the audience can see. Talk TO the audience not the aid. o Keep aids close to you Don't make the audience's attention bounce from you to the aid, their head should stay in the same place. You don't want it to look like they're watching a basketball game watching the ball go back and forth o Put the aid out of sight when not in use. Images that arent in use will distract and possibly confuse the audience. Put blank slides in power points if you are going on a tangent between slides, cover presentation materials when not in use. o Practice with aids Practice so gestures and references to the aid are natural and not awkward o Don't circulate your aids Don't pass around an object it will distract the audience from what you are talking about. Use large aids or let audience members see your object up close after your presentation. o Don't talk in the dark If the audience can't see you, then you become irrelevant and your credibility as a speaker can be questioned. If you are showing a video merely dim the lights or put a spotlight on you so your audience is still engaged with you. Body language is important for the audience to interpret. o Anticipate problems Technology always glitches and the more complicated it is the more likely something will go wrong. Show up early and test the room/projector/devices. Have a hard copy of the power point, overhead projectors can be used in a pinch. If your poster falls make a joke about it and quickly set it up, can help to engage the audience more, even add to your credibility if you recover from setbacks well.