scom 2050 final

What are some of the major events that changed television in the 1950s?

1950- red channels; nielsen ratings 1951-us wired coast to coast, i love lucy 1954- army-mccarthy hearing telecast 1959- quiz show scandal In 1952, 108 stations were broadcasting to 17 million television homes. By the end of the decade, there were 559 stations, and nearly 90% of U.S. households had televisions. In the 1950s more television sets were sold in the United States (70 million) than there were children born (40.5 million) (Kuralt, 1977). The technical standards were fixed, stations proliferated and flourished, the public tuned in, and advertisers were enthusiastic. But in 1959 a quiz show scandal (enveloping independently produced, single-advertiser-sponsored programs) changed the way the networks did business. When it was discovered that popular shows like The $64,000 Question had been fixed by advertisers and producers to ensure desired outcomes, the networks, mindful of their reputations, were determined to take control of their schedules. They, themselves, began commissioning or buying the entertainment fare that filled their broadcast days and nights. Now, rather than selling blocks of time to ad agencies and sponsors, the networks paid for the content they aired through spot commercial sales (selling individual 60-second spots on a given program to a wide variety of advertisers). I LOVE LUCY AND MORE CHANGES In 1951 CBS asked Lucille Ball to move her hit radio program, My Favorite Husband, to television. Lucy was willing but wanted her real-life husband, Desi Arnaz, to play the part of her on-air spouse. The network refused (some historians say the network objected to the prime-time presentation of an interracial marriage—Desi Arnaz was Cuban—but CBS denies this). But Lucy made additional demands. Television programming at the time was broadcast live: Images were typically captured by three large television cameras, with a director in a booth choosing among the three available images. Lucy wanted her program produced in the same manner—in front of a live audience with three simultaneously running cameras—but these cameras would be film cameras. Editors could then review the three sets of film and edit them together to give the best combination of action and reaction shots. Lucy also wanted the production to take place in Hollywood, the nation's film MCCARTHYISM: THE GROWING POWER OF TELEVISION The Red Scare that cowed the movie business also touched television, aided by the publication in 1950 of Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television, the work of three former FBI agents operating a company called American Business Consultants. Its 200 pages detailed the alleged pro-Communist sympathies of 151 broadcast personalities, including Orson Welles and journalist Howard K. Smith. Advertisers were encouraged to avoid buying time from broadcasters who employed these "Red sympathizers." Like the movie studios, the television industry caved in. The networks employed security checkers to look into people's backgrounds, refused to hire suspect talent, and demanded loyalty oaths from performers. In its infancy, television had taken the safe path. Many gifted artists were denied not only a paycheck but also the opportunity to shape the medium's content. capital, instead of New York, the television center at the time. CBS was uncertain about this departure from how television was typically produced and refused these requests as well.

Brandenburg v. Ohio

1969--Determined that a law that proscribes advocacy of violence for political reform is constitutional if applied to speech that is not directed toward producing imminent lawlessness and is not likely to produce such action is not constitutional.

Spiral of Silence Theory

Focuses on what happens when people provide their opinion on a variety of issues that the media have defined for the public

Understand what social cognitive theory predicts about the effects of violence in the media

Idea that people learn through observation, either as imitation or identification; actual exhibition of these behaviors is dependent on the reinforcement we associate with them.

Know which president was the first to hire a press secretary.

In 1833, for example, Andrew Jackson hired former newspaper journalist Amos Kendall as his publicist and the country's first presidential press secretary in an effort to combat the aristocrats who saw Jackson as too common to be president.

Know who Edward Bernays and Ivy Lee were - their contributions to the field, their influences.

Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays are often listed as two of the most influential figures in the early history of public relations. Indeed, both men are sometimes referred to as the father of public relations. The upcoming chapter describes some of both men's contributions to the field, but it's useful to talk in greater depth about both Lee and Bernays, and to consider their role in the history of PR. Ivy Lee started off his professional career as a newspaper reporter, working for some of the most prominent papers of his time. Around 1903, he started doing publicity work for political candidates. In 1904, he opened only the third public relations-oriented agency in the country. In 1905, he was representing the coal interests in a strike. He sent a handout to the newspaper editors in the area that was later documented in a magazine article. This "Declaration of Principles" by Lee announced several things: that Lee and his agency would do all their work openly and with transparency, that they would strive to be accurate in all their communications, that they would work with the press to answer any questions. Lee's "Declaration" is often cited by historians as the moment that public relations as a field was born—they believe that Lee established a new form of communication between organizations and the press. However, it is unlikely that Lee was the sole originator of these ideas. Public relations and media history scholar Karen Russell Miller argues that we ought to give some credit to president Theodore Roosevelt. Like Ivy Lee, Edward Bernays is often described as the father of public relations. Bernays got his start doing publicity work in the theater and dance world around 1914. His work then (and throughout his career) was deeply influenced by the ideas and writings of his uncle, Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Bernays was deeply enthusiastic about serving his country. He worked hard to find a way to use his skills as a publicist, and in 1918 he was given a position with the U.S. Committee on Public Influence—the closest thing the federal government had to propaganda arm at the time. He used the techniques he had honed in the world of entertainment to help win the American public over to the idea of the war. While some historians describe Bernays' role in the pro-war propaganda machine as central, in reality he was never part of the Committee on Public Influence's "brain trust."7 He returned from the war convinced that his adaptation of his uncle's theories could be used to change the public mind, and throughout his career he proved his beliefs by running successful campaigns for organizations like the American Tobacco Company, Simon and Schuster, the Multiple Sclerosis Society, General Electric, General Motors, Proctor and Gamble, and countless others. Where Bernays really distinguished himself as a giant of public relations, however, was as a teacher, philosopher, and writer.

Know the trustee model of regulation and the premises on which it exists.

The act further stated that when a license was awarded, the standard of evaluation would be the public interest, convenience, or necessity. The Federal Radio Commission (FRC) was established to administer the provisions of the act. This trustee model of regulation is based on two premises (Bittner, 1994). The first is spectrum scarcity. Because broadcast spectrum space is limited and not everyone who wants to broadcast can, those who are granted licenses to serve a local area must accept regulation. The second reason for regulation revolves around the issue of influence. Broadcasting reaches virtually everyone in society. By definition, this ensures its power.

reputation preservation

We focus 100% of our efforts on preserving the reputations

quality

There is also a question regarding the quality of those representations. Even if a particular group has a strong presence in the media, exactly what is the nature of that presence? In other words, presence is a question of if a group is represented, while quality is a question of how they are represented. When it comes to quality, the news about representation of ethnic minorities is very bad indeed. For example, "research has shown that Blacks are less diversified because they appear most frequently in situation comedies and in programs with predominantly Black characters."

Moral Panic Theory

What theory explains heightened public fear and violence towards a particular group

association

is a tactic whereby advertisers teach consumers to attach specific meanings to their brands. Like distinction, association is about establishing mental structures in consumers' minds. Instead of memory, however, association works on meaning. It teaches us what goes with what, or perhaps what to think about when we encounter a reference to a brand. If Nike works hard enough at their marketing, for example, when we see their shoes we will think "just do it." When we see a FedEx logo, we will think about fast delivery.

mass media

are organizations that use technological channels of distributing messages with the purpose of creating and maintaining audiences

social signaling

communicating desires and mental states to others via emotional expressions. A social signal is defined as any action or overt behavior, regardless of its form, intent, or the performer's awareness, that is carried out in the presence of another person. 3. A social signal is a form of communication, such as an eye roll, the silent treatment, walking away, or a smile

mass communication

communication to a large audience that occurs via dissemination of messages by mess media

What is the premise of complementary copy?

complementary copy—content that reinforces the advertiser's message, or at least does not negate it—is problematic when creating such copy becomes a major influence in a publication's editorial decision making. This happens in a number of ways. Editors sometimes engage in self-censorship, making decisions about how stories are written and which stories appear based on the fear that specific advertisers will be offended. Some magazines, Architectural Digest, for example, identify companies by name in their picture caption copy only if they are advertisers. But many critics inside and outside the industry see a growing crumbling of the wall between advertising demands and editorial judgment.

ownership

concentration of ownership is more than an economic issue. It is a fundamental principle of our democracy that we have a right to information from a wide diversity of viewpoints so that we can make up our own minds. Democracy—rule by the people—requires an independent media.

conglomeration

conglomeration, the increase in the ownership of media outlets by larger, nonmedia companies.

Zipping

fast-forwarding through taped commercials on a VCR

taste publics

groups of people who share similar artistic, literary, media, recreational, and intellectual interests. groups of people bound by little more than an interest in a given form of media content

Cultivation Theory

idea that long-term immersion in a media environment leads to "cultivation," or enculturation, into shared beliefs about the world. Idea that television "cultivates" or constructs a reality of the world that, although possibly inaccurate, becomes the accepted reality simply because we as a culture believe it to be; we then base our judgments about and our actions in the world on this cultivated reality.

What are shield laws and why are they important?

legislation that expressly protects reporters' rights to maintain sources' confidentiality in courts of law, or court precedent upholding that right. There is no shield law in federal courts, and many journalists want it that way. Their fear is that once Congress makes one "media law" it may want to make another. For example, media professionals do not want the government to legislate the definition of "reporter" or "journalist."

Corantos

news sheets that appeared around 1600; The newspapers we recognize today have their roots in 17th-century Europe. Corantos, one-page news sheets about specific events, were printed in English in Holland in 1620 and imported to England by British booksellers who were eager to satisfy public demand for information about Continental happenings that eventually led to what we now call the Thirty Years' War.

Who was Benjamin Day (and why was he important)?

penny press, one-cent newspapers for everyone. Benjamin Day's September 3, 1833, issue of the New York Sun was the first of the penny papers. Day's innovation was to price his paper so inexpensively that it would attract a large readership, which could then be "sold" to advertisers. Day succeeded because he anticipated a new kind of reader. He filled the Sun's pages with police and court reports, crime stories, entertainment news, and human interest stories. Because the paper lived up to its motto, "The Sun shines for all," there was little of the elite political and business information that had characterized earlier papers.

Know premise of excitation transfer theory and its applicability to violence

the theory that emotional responses can be intensified by arousal from other stimuli not directly related to the stimulus that originally provoked the response. According to this theory, when a person becomes aroused physiologically, there is a subsequent period of time when the person will experience a state of residual arousal yet be unaware of it. If additional stimuli are encountered during this time, the individual may mistakenly ascribe his or her residual response from the previous stimuli to those successive stimuli.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

theory that looks at the ways media consumers choose media to meet their needs. Idea that media don't do things to people; people do things with media. Audience members are powerful agents in either limiting or allowing effects.

Agenda Setting Theory

theory that the mass media can set the public agenda by selecting certain news stories and excluding others, thus influencing what audiences think about. Theory that media may not tell as what to think, but do tell as what to think about, meaning media can have important effects for individuals and society.

convergence

the state of separate elements joining or coming together. the erosion of traditional distinctions among media.

bandwagon effect

"Copy-cat" behavior. People often do things just because other people do them. In primary elections, it is when people support the candidate everyone else seems to be supporting (poll leaders). Leads to Primary Frontloading (states want to have the most impact in the primary process). Bandwagon appeals in advertising play on that desire. Every ad that talks about a product's popularity is using a bandwagon appeal. Think of the number of television ads you've seen where someone sees a group of people talking about something and goes to figure out what the big deal is. The group explains that they're talking about a product, but our poor main character hasn't ever heard of it. The group is shocked. "You're not using this product?" they ask, horrified, giving the main character a look of disappointment and shame. By the end of the ad the main character is shown using the product or promising to use it. These kinds of narratives not only appeal to our need for inclusion, they show us how bad we'll feel if we don't follow the example set by other consumers of a product.

Know the characteristics of media literacy

1 A critical thinking skill enabling audience members to develop independent judgments about media content. Thinking critically about the content we consume is the very essence of media literacy. Why do we watch what we watch, read what we read, listen to what we listen to? Is that story you saw on Twitter real? If we cannot answer these questions, we have taken no responsibility for ourselves or our choices. As such, we have taken no responsibility for the outcome of those choices. 2 An understanding of the process of mass communication. If we know the components of the mass communication process and how they relate to one another, we can form expectations of how they can serve us. How do the various media industries operate? What are their obligations to us? What are the obligations of the audience? How do different media limit or enhance messages? Which forms of feedback are most effective, and why? 3 An awareness of the impact of media on the individual and society. Writing and the printing press helped change the world and the people in it. Mass media do the same. If we ignore the impact of media on our lives, we run the risk of being caught up and carried along by that change rather than controlling or leading it. 4 Strategies for analyzing and discussing media messages. To consume media messages thoughtfully, we need a foundation on which to base thought and reflection. If we make meaning, we must possess the tools with which to make it (for example, understanding the intent and impact of film and video conventions, such as camera angles and lighting, or the strategy behind the placement of images on a newspaper's website). Otherwise, meaning is made for us; the interpretation of media content will then rest with its creator, not with us. 5 An understanding of media content as a text that provides insight into our culture and our lives. How do we know a culture and its people, attitudes, values, concerns, and myths? We know them through communication. For modern cultures like ours, media messages increasingly dominate that communication, shaping our understanding of and insight into our culture. 6 The ability to enjoy, understand, and appreciate media content. Media literacy does not mean living the life of a grump, liking nothing in the media, or always being suspicious of harmful effects and cultural degradation. We take high school and college classes to enhance our understanding and appreciation of novels; we can do the same for media texts. 1 Development of effective and responsible production skills. Traditional literacy assumes that people who can read can also write. Media literacy also makes this assumption. Our definition of literacy (of either type) calls not only for effective and efficient comprehension of content but also for its effective and efficient use. Therefore, media-literate individuals should develop production skills that enable them to create useful media messages. If you have ever tried to make a narrative home video—one that tells a story—you know that producing content is much more difficult than consuming it. If you have ever posted to Snapchat or Instagram or uploaded a video to YouTube, you are indeed a media content producer; why not be a good media content producer? 2 An understanding of the ethical and moral obligations of media practitioners. To make informed judgments about the performance of the media, we also must be aware of the competing pressures on practitioners as they do their jobs. We must understand the media's official and unofficial rules of operation. In other words, we must know, respectively, their legal and ethical obligations. Return, for a moment, to the question of televised violence. It is legal for a station to air graphic violence. But is it ethical? If it is unethical, what power, if any, do we have to demand its removal from our screens? Dilemmas such as this are discussed at length in the chapter on media freedom, regulation, and ethics.

Schenck v. United States

A 1919 decision upholding the conviction of a socialist who had urged young men to resist the draft during World War I. Justice Holmes declared that government can limit speech if the speech provokes a "clear and present danger" of substantive evils. Can freedom of the press be limited if the likely result is damaging? The Supreme Court answered this question in 1919 in Schenck v. United States. In this case involving the distribution of a pamphlet urging illegal resistance to the military draft during World War I, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote that expression could be limited when "the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent." Justice Holmes added, "Free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing panic." This decision is especially important because it firmly established the legal philosophy that there is no absolute freedom of expression; the level of protection is one of degree.

Targeting

A strategy in which marketers evaluate the attractiveness of each potential segment and decide in which of these groups they will invest resources to try to turn them into customers. these media targeted smaller audiences that were alike in some important characteristic and therefore more attractive to specific advertisers.

What is abridgment with regard to the First Amendment?

Abridgment is the curtailing of rights, and even absolutists accept the idea that some curtailment or limits can be placed on the time, place, and manner of expression—as long as the restrictions do not interfere with the substance of the expression. Few, for example, would find it unreasonable to limit the use of a sound truck to broadcast political messages at 4:00 a.m. But the Supreme Court did find unconstitutional an ordinance that forbade all use of sound amplification except with the permission of the chief of police in its 1948 decision in Saia v. New York. The permissibility of other restrictions, however, is less clear-cut.

Telecommunications Act of 1996

Allows one company to own as many as eight radio stations in large markets (five in smaller ones) and as many as it wishes nationally. Presidential administrations since Reagan have tended to pursue either regulatory or deregulatory impulses depending on their party identity, with Republican presidents strongly tending toward deregulation and Democratic presidents more apt to pursue antitrust enforcement. The irony of the media sector, however, is that the largest single act of deregulation since Reagan took place during Bill Clinton's presidency. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 undid many years of policy that was generally designed to prevent the control of the media by large corporations. While the act was complex, the "net effect of the Telecommunications Act in terms of media ownership was that one company could now own significantly more broadcast stations than ever before, and cable systems were legally permitted to combine with broadcast networks and phone companies."8 This change produced massive concentration of ownership in the media sector, laying "the foundation for the global media conglomerates of the new millennium."9 The Telecommunications Act of 1996 not only fueled the growth of very large media corporations, it also prompted revolutionary changes in the media itself. When it became legal for cable companies like Comcast to merge with broadcast networks like NBC, corporate executives were incentivized to think of new ways to merge formerly separate aspects of the media sector.

effects

As a result, current media depictions are causing real distress to young people of color. Research indicates, for example, that exposure to mass media "negatively influences Latino adolescents' self-esteem along a number of dimensions including social and appearance self-esteem."27 This can lead to intense feelings of shame and anger. However, it appears that consuming media can improve attitudes about people of color, not just worsen them. Research has shown that when white people consume media that contains hyper-sexualized Black and Latin characters, white people develop more negative attitudes about those two groups. On the other hand, depictions of Black and Latin characters as having higher social and professional status lead white Americans to hold more favorable views of those same groups.28 The lesson we take from all this research is, unsurprisingly, that negative depictions of ethnic minorities lead to negative attitudes—even within the communities being stereotyped—and positive depictions can lead to positive outcomes.

Know early history of radio - key players, when commercial radio began, early regulation efforts.

Because both applied for patents within months of one another in the late 1890s, there remains disagreement over who "invented" radio, Eastern European immigrant Nikola Tesla or Guglielmo Marconi, son of a wealthy Italian businessman and his Irish wife. Marconi, however, is considered the "Father of Radio" because not only was he among the first to send signals through the air, but he was also adroit at gaining maximum publicity for his every success. His improvements over earlier experimental designs allowed him to send and receive telegraph code over distances as great as two miles by 1896. His native Italy was not interested in his invention, so he used his mother's contacts in Great Britain to find support and financing there. England, with a global empire and the world's largest navy and merchant fleets, was naturally interested in long-distance wireless communication. With the financial and technical help of the British, Marconi successfully transmitted wireless signals across the English Channel in 1899 and across the Atlantic in 1901. Wireless was now a reality. Marconi was satisfied with his advance, but other scientists saw the transmission of voices by wireless as the next hurdle, a challenge that was soon surmounted. In 1903 Reginald Fessenden, a Canadian, invented the liquid barretter, the first audio device permitting the reception of wireless voice transmissions. His 1906 Christmas Eve broadcast from Brant Rock, a small New England coastal village, was the first public broadcast of voices and music. His listeners were in ships at sea and a few newspaper offices equipped to receive the transmission. Later that same year American Lee DeForest invented the audion tube, a vacuum tube that improved and amplified wireless signals. Now the reliable transmission of clear voices and music was a reality. But DeForest's second important contribution was that he saw radio as a means of broadcasting. The early pioneers, Marconi included, had viewed radio as a device for point-to-point communication—for example, from ship to ship or ship to shore. But in the 1907 prospectus for his radio company DeForest wrote, "It will soon be possible to distribute grand opera music from transmitters placed on the stage of the Metropolitan Opera House by a Radio Telephone station on the roof to almost any dwelling in Greater New York and vicinity. . . . The same applies to large cities. Church music, lectures, etc., can be spread abroad by the Radio Telephone" (as quoted in Adams, 1996, pp. 104-106). Soon, countless "broadcasters" went on the air. Some were giant corporations, looking to dominate the medium for profit; some were hobbyists and hams, playing with the medium for sheer joy. There were so many "stations" that havoc reigned. Yet the promise of radio was such that the medium continued to mature until World War I, when the U.S. government ordered "the immediate closing of all stations for radio communications, both transmitting and receiving."

Know about Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798

But a mere eight years later, fearful of the subversive activities of foreigners sympathetic to France, Congress passed a group of four laws known collectively as the Alien and Sedition Acts. The Sedition Acts made illegal writing, publishing, or printing "any false scandalous and malicious writing" about the president, Congress, or the federal government. So unpopular were these laws with a citizenry who had just waged a war of independence against similar limits on their freedom of expression that they were not renewed when Congress reconsidered them two years later in 1800.

Know the key players in the invention of television and their respective roles.

During the early 1900s, there was something of an international race to invent and then build a practical, workable television system. Many early efforts involved extensive use of mechanical equipment: machines with moving parts. These systems produced positive scientific results, but none of them seemed capable of forming the basis for a reliable commercial product. Enter Philo T. Farnsworth. His story is truly amazing. Philo reportedly decided he would become an inventor when he was six years old, living with his family in Utah. When he was twelve, his family moved to a ranch house in Idaho that belonged to his uncle. Philo discovered a stack of science and technology magazines in the attic of the old house, and began reading and experimenting. He started winning prizes with his electronic inventions, and when he was 14 he came up with what proved to be a revolutionary idea. "Farnsworth drew it out on the blackboard for his high school science teacher, Justin Tolman: plans for a wholly electronic television. Images would be captured and conveyed by electron beams between cathode ray tubes."1 By 1927, at the age of twenty-one, Philo had sent his first successful transmission. In 1928, he demonstrated the system to the press. By 1930, Philo's financial backers were trying to tempt RCA to invest in his work and possibly buy out Farnsworth's company. RCA sent their primary television scientist Vladimir Zworykin to visit Philo's lab. And that's where things get complicated. Some accounts describe Philo Farnsworth as the sole inventor of television. Others credit Zworykin, or even John Logie Baird. The upcoming chapter claims that historians disagree on what really happened, but that's not entirely accurate. There is broad agreement that Zworykin was a prodigious and important inventor who had made enormous advances in television receiver technology. However, he had not been successful in creating a fully electronic television system like the one Farnsworth had invented. Zworykin was particularly interested in Farnsworth's "image dissector"—his camera technology—but the young American rejected RCA's offer of $100,000 for his work.

Know how Thomas Edison shaped the early film industry and movie studios

Edison built the first motion picture studio near his laboratory in New Jersey. He called it Black Maria, the common name at that time for a police paddy wagon. It had an open roof and revolved to follow the sun so the performers being filmed would always be illuminated. The completed films were not projected. Instead, they were run through a kinetoscope, a sort of peep show device. Often they were accompanied by music provided by another Edison invention, the phonograph. Patented in 1891 and commercially available three years later, the kinetoscope quickly became a popular feature in penny arcades, vaudeville halls, and big-city Kinetoscope parlors. This marked the beginning of commercial motion picture exhibition

Be familiar with the contributions Edwin Porter made to film.

Edwin S. Porter, an Edison Company camera operator, saw that film could be an even better storyteller with more artistic use of camera placement and editing. His 12-minute The Great Train Robbery (1903) was the first movie to use editing, intercutting of scenes, and a mobile camera to tell a relatively sophisticated tale. It was also the first Western. This new narrative form using montage—tying together two separate but related shots in such a way that they take on a new, unified meaning—was an instant hit with audiences. Almost immediately hundreds of nickelodeons, some having as many as 100 seats, were opened in converted stores, banks, and halls across the United States. The price of admission was one nickel, hence the name.

Know what the term 'engagement' means as it refers to magazines.

Engagement refers to the depth of the relationship between readers and the magazine advertising they see. People choose to read specific magazines for specific reasons. They have an existing interest that brings them to a particular publication. As a result, the magazine and its ads speak to them

Federal Trade Commission Act (1914)

Established the Federal Trade Commission to monitor business practices, false advertising, and dishonest labeling. The final major piece of antitrust legislation passed during this initial period was The Federal Trade Commission Act. This act established the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), and empowered it to prevent unfair competition, seek damages from bad actors, create new trade regulation rules, conduct investigations of anticompetitive practices, and make reports and recommendations to congress. The FTC can issue cease-and-desist orders to any corporation it decides is engaging in unfair trading practices, though of course the corporation can always go to court to defend itself. Though many other pieces of trade-related legislation were passed during this period, these three acts—The Sherman Antitrust Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, and the Federal Trade Commission Act—formed the backbone of early attempts to check the growth and power of large corporations in the United States. In fact, all three acts remain in force today, though they have each been substantially modified and amended over the years.

Know how cost of advertising on local radio compares to cost of advertising on local television.

Even though a TV ad is more expensive, per ad, than radio, you are paying almost three times as much to reach each potential customer with radio. the cost of a radio ad is $50 and the cost of a tv ad is-

What are evergreen subscriptions?

Evergreen subscriptions let you to create subscription lines that don't have end dates. Such lines and subscriptions are called perpetual, or open-ended. Subscription headers may or may not have an end date.

Understand what a model minority is and what the implications of this depiction are.

Extensive research and analysis over a long time-span has confirmed that Asian characters are commonly depicted as being part of a model minority—a group that is perceived to have greater success than other minorities and thus serves as a model for less successful groups. Unfortunately, that depiction is wrong on many levels. It assumes that all Asian people are a single group, and that their experiences as people of color and citizens of the United States are comparable to those of other ethnicities.

Sherman Antitrust Act

First federal action against monopolies, it was signed into law by Harrison and was extensively used by Theodore Roosevelt for trust-busting. However, it was initially misused against labor unions. Congress passed The Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, the first of a series of federal laws designed to put a damper on corporate growth and power. The Sherman Act stated that "Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal."4 While the act definitely led to a number of high-profile actions to break up large corporations, the language of the law is quite vague, and many of the act's supporters saw it as something that would inevitably need further legislation to help define its terms and enable further action.

put

First, a producer has an idea, or a network has an idea and asks a proven producer to propose a show based on it (possibly offering a put, a deal that guarantees the producer that the network will order at least a pilot or have to pay a hefty penalty).

Charles Babbage

He is known as the "Father of Computers." He developed the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine. These two machines were powered by steam to move the punch cards and operate the gears. His ideas were later used to design calculators and computers. The title "originator of the computer" resides with Englishman Charles Babbage. Lack of money and unavailability of the necessary technology stymied his plan to build an "analytical engine," a steam-driven computer. But in the mid-1880s, aided by the insights of mathematician Lady Ada Byron Lovelace, Babbage did produce designs for a "computer" that could conduct algebraic computations using stored memory and punch cards for input and output. His work provided inspiration for those who would follow.

Define term 'hegemonic masculinity' and recognize examples.

Hegemonic masculinity is the embodiment of traditional and stereotypical masculine norms and values, illustrated by characteristics such as aggression, power and dominance, status seeking, emotional restraint, heterosexuality, and risk taking."

What did the Major Picture Production Code do?

Hollywood responded in 1922 by creating the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) and appointing Will H. Hays—chair of the Republican Party, a Presbyterian church elder, and a former postmaster general—president. The Hays Office, as it became known, undertook a vast effort to improve the image of the movies. Stressing the importance of movies to national life and as an educational medium, Hays promised better movies and founded a committee on public relations that included many civic and religious leaders. Eventually, in 1934, the Motion Picture Production Code (MPPC) was released. The code forbade the use of profanity, limited bedroom scenes to married couples (although they could not be shown in bed together), required that skimpy outfits be replaced by more complete costumes, delineated the length of screen kisses, ruled out scenes that ridiculed public officials or religious leaders, and outlawed a series of words from "God" to "nuts," all enforced by a $25,000 fine and the demand that scripts be submitted in advance for approval, a form of pre-censorship (Denby, 2016).

What was the Advanced Research Projects Agency? Why was it formed?

In 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, Earth's first human-constructed satellite. The once-undisputed supremacy of the United States in science and technology had been usurped, and U.S. scientists and military officials were in shock. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was immediately established to sponsor and coordinate sophisticated defense-related research. In 1962, as part of a larger drive to promote the use of computers in national defense (and giving rise to one of the stories of the Internet's origins), ARPA commissioned Paul Baran of the Rand Corporation to produce a plan that would enable the U.S. military to maintain command over its missiles and planes if a nuclear attack knocked out conventional means of communication. The military thought a decentralized communication network was necessary.

Know the impetus for many movie studios moving production out West in the early 1900s

In addition, the MPPC had rules about the look of the movies it would permit: They must be one reel, approximately 12 minutes long, and must adopt a "stage perspective"; that is, the actors must fill the frame as if they were in a stage play. Many independent film companies sprang up in defiance of the Trust, including Griffith's in 1913. To avoid MPPC scrutiny and reprisal, these companies moved as far away as they could, to California. This westward migration had other benefits. Better weather meant longer shooting seasons. Free of MPPC interference, people like Griffith who wanted to explore the potential of films longer than 12 minutes and with imaginative use of the camera were free to do so.

presence

In other words, if we assume that the world of American television should ideally reflect the ethnic makeup of the United States, we would discover that there are far fewer people of color on television than there should be and far more white people. This is the most fundamental issue of representation: presence. Do members of different ethnic minorities get represented at all, and if so to what extent? Unfortunately, the popular debate about race in the U.S. often gets reduced to black-versus white, and if we only examine those two social categories we miss out on some of the most important issues of media representation.

broadsides

In the colonies, bookseller/print shops became the focal point for the exchange of news and information, which led to the beginning of the colonial newspaper. It was at these establishments that broadsides (sometimes referred to as broadsheets), single-sheet announcements or accounts of events imported from England, would be posted. In 1690 Boston bookseller/printer (and coffeehouse owner) Benjamin Harris printed his own broadside, Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick. Intended for continuous publication, the country's first paper lasted only one day; Harris had been critical of local and European dignitaries, and he had also failed to obtain a license.

Asymmetric Updaters

Individuals update their beliefs asymmetrically, responding more to good than bad news

Tim Berners-Lee

Invented the World Wide Web. Hypertext transfer was developed in the early 1990s by England's Tim Berners-Lee, who was working at CERN, the international particle physics laboratory near Geneva, Switzerland. Berners-Lee gave HTTP to the world for free. "The Web is more a social creation than a technical one," he wrote. "I designed it for a social effect—to help people work together—and not as a technical toy. The ultimate goal of the Web is to support and improve our web-like existence in the world"

What does it mean for a magazine to engage in split-runs?

Magazines are often further specialized through split runs, special versions of a given issue in which editorial content and ads vary according to some specific demographic or regional grouping. People, for example, will sell A-B splits in which every other copy of the national edition will carry a different cover, regional splits by state and by major metropolitan area, and splits targeting the top 10 and top 20 largest metropolitan areas

Be familiar with how women are represented in news media.

More and more women are involved behind the scenes in television. 18 of the The Hollywood Reporter's "most powerful TV showrunners of 2018" were women,"29 and the industry press is full of news of female showrunners on the rise. Women make up around 25% of television writers, and overall women represented 27% of all creators, directors, writers, producers, executive producers, editors, and directors of photography working on broadcast network, cable, and streaming programs.30 These numbers have been relatively stagnant over the last ten years, but we are in the midst of an unprecedented expansion in the amount of original television programming on television, so on the whole more women are working in TV production. 17 percent of all directors, writers, producers, executive producers, editors and cinematographers, combined.31 The situation is particularly bad for female directors. In 900 movies studied over a decade, only 4.1% of directors were women.32 Nor is there much cause for hope for the future. While the percentage of women working behind the scenes rose to 20% in 2018, that figure is less than one percent higher than it was in 2001, suggesting that women's off-screen fortunes in Hollywood have not improved. While the overall presence of women in entertainment media has improved over the years, it has not reached the level of parity we would expect if television actually reflected the demographic reality of the nation. In one of the most comprehensive recent studies of primetime television, media scholars Alexander Sink and Dana Mastro studied over 1,200 television characters from nearly 90 shows. They found that over 60% of the characters were male and just under 40% were female. Only 21% of television programs have mostly female casts.Things are even worse for women's presence when it comes to film. Women made up only 35% of all speaking characters in the top-grossing movies of 2018, which is actually a high point for the last ten years.8 The percentage of speaking roles for women has fluctuated between 28% and 33% during that time.9 Women represented about 36% of major characters,10 but only 29.4% of lead roles.

Know the different types of noise that can make communication ineffective

Noise causes disruption to or interruption of messages. External noise is Physical noise-makes a message difficult to hear. Internal noises are physiological, semantic, and psychological noise. Physiological noise- hearing problems, illness Semantic noise- occurs when communicators apply different meanings to the same words or phrases. Psychological noise-interference due to attitudes, ideas and emotions perceived during interaction.

What are the characteristics of objective journalism?

Objective journalism is a way of approaching journalism that highlights the importance of separating facts from opinion, presenting an emotionally detached view of the news, and striving for fairness and balance. As Steven Maras notes, a simpler way of saying this is that objective journalism is a form of journalism that is committed to specific values, processes, and language.8 It values fairness, a commitment to facts, and a presentation of the news without bias. Its processes include many things we have come to associate with journalistic professionalism, including using supporting evidence, attributing quotes carefully and accurately, requiring confirmation of key elements of a story from multiple sources, fact-checking, and presenting stories in a specific format that readers recognize as "news." The language of objective journalism rejects hyperbole and emotional terminology, and tends to involve a simple, direct style of communication that gives readers a sense of confidence in the reporter's trustworthiness.

Be able to identify details of first radio advertisement to ever air.

On August 22, 1922, New York station WEAF accepted the first radio commercial, a 10-minute spot for Long Island brownstone apartments. The cost of the ad was $50.

Know the dual-factor model of social media use

One answer to the why of our engagement with social networking sites resides in the dual-factor model of social media use, which claims that this engagement is motivated by two basic social needs. The first is the need to belong, our natural desire to associate with other people and gain their acceptance. The second, the need for self-presentation, is our ongoing effort to shape what others think of us. The two operate simultaneously because social media activity not only tells us we belong (that's where our friends are), but it increases our sense of acceptance and, therefore, our self-esteem (Nadkarni & Hofmann, 2012). In fact, the simple act of updating and reading our own profiles boosts our self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011).

absolutist

One view was (and is) housed in the absolutist position, which is expressed succinctly by Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black: No law means no law. . . . My view is, without deviation, without exception, without any ifs, buts, or whereases, that freedom of speech means that government shall not do anything to people, either for the views they have or the views they express, or the words they speak or write. (New York Times v. United States, 1971) Yet the absolutist position is more complex than this would suggest. Although absolutists accept that the First Amendment provides a central and fundamental wall of protection for the press and free expression, several questions about its true meaning remained to be answered over time. absolutists accept the idea that some curtailment or limits can be placed on the time, place, and manner of expression—as long as the restrictions do not interfere with the substance of the expression

Know textbook definition of fake news and the different components of the definition.

People say "fake news" when describing at least six different things: • News stories that are intentionally misleading • Comedy that parodies or satirizes the actual news, like The Daily Show or The Onion • News stories that are unacceptably partisan or otherwise biased • Misleading news stories written or funded by corporations for the purposes of advertising • Reporting that contains factual errors • Anything published that the person speaking dislikes or disagrees with The definition of fake news we will use was formulated by philosophy professor and social cognition scholar Regina Rini: A fake news story is one that purports to describe events in the real world, typically by mimicking the conventions of traditional media reportage, yet is known by its creators to be significantly false, and is transmitted with the two goals of being widely re-transmitted and of deceiving at least some of its audience.4

production

Perhaps the most important aspect of representation in mass media—and one that gets very little attention—is the lack of minority representation in the production side of mass media. This includes a variety of different kinds of positions within the entertainment industry, all of which are influential in terms both of what stories get told and in terms of how they are told. Perhaps the most influential of these positions is that of writer. Unfortunately, in television, "the numbers of women and, particularly, minorities hired as writers has decreased over the past few TV seasons," and past research leads us to believe that "those who write the stories may be likely to write about people with whom they are comfortable—presumably people like themselves."22 One of the most comprehensive recent studies determined that two-thirds of all television shows did not have any Black writers at all, and only around 14% of all television writers are people of color.23 The numbers for film are even worse, with the percentage of minority writers hovering around 8% since 2010

Know who is responsible for regulating advertising in the U.S. and what options for enforcement they have

Relationship marketing tries to build long-term relationships with customers that maintain brand awareness, create ongoing and evolving positive brand associations, and ensure customer loyalty. By looking beyond advertising that focuses on one-time purchasing decisions, relationship marketing promotes unique and nuanced forms of advertising aimed at weaving brands into customers' broader lives. Consider the number of companies that maintain active social media accounts

relationship marketing.

Relationship marketing tries to build long-term relationships with customers that maintain brand awareness, create ongoing and evolving positive brand associations, and ensure customer loyalty. By looking beyond advertising that focuses on one-time purchasing decisions, relationship marketing promotes unique and nuanced forms of advertising aimed at weaving brands into customers' broader lives. Consider the number of companies that maintain active social media accounts

unique selling proposition

Rosser Reeves, argued that the best way to reach the vast new audience of television viewers was to create advertisements that featured what he called a unique selling proposition (USP). A USP is a claim that buying a product will give customers one specific, unique benefit that they find meaningful. Though Reeves coined the term in the early 1960s, the USP remains a central feature of modern advertising theory.

Differentiate between mass communication, mass media, and mediated communication

So, to summarize, mass media are media organizations, mass communication is disseminated by those organizations, and mediated communication is any kind of communication that is technologically conveyed—regardless of how it is disseminated or whether it is intended for mass audiences

Know the contributions of the Lumiere brothers to the film industry

The Lumière brothers made the next advance. Their initial screenings demonstrated that people would sit in a darkened room to watch motion pictures projected on a screen. The brothers from Lyon envisioned great wealth in their ability to increase the number of people who could simultaneously watch a movie. In 1895 they patented their cinématographe, a device that both photographed and projected action. Within weeks of their Christmastime showing, long lines of enthusiastic moviegoers were waiting for their makeshift theater to open. Edison recognized the advantage of the cinématographe over his kinetoscope, so he acquired the patent for an advanced projector developed by U.S. inventor Thomas Armat. On April 23, 1896, the Edison Vitascope premiered in New York City, and the American movie business was born.

New York Times v. US

The President argues that the publication of the Pentagon Papers is in violation of executive privilege. Result: The barring of the publication of these papers is in violation of the 1st A. Publication does not imperial the public. Clearly, the idea of freedom of the press needed some clarification. One view was (and is) housed in the absolutist position, which is expressed succinctly by Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black: No law means no law. . . . My view is, without deviation, without exception, without any ifs, buts, or whereases, that freedom of speech means that government shall not do anything to people, either for the views they have or the views they express, or the words they speak or write. (New York Times v. United States, 1971) Yet the absolutist position is more complex than this would suggest. Although absolutists accept that the First Amendment provides a central and fundamental wall of protection for the press and free expression, several questions about its true meaning remained to be answered over time. You can read about a recent controversial Supreme Court First Amendment ruling in the box entitled "First Amendment Protection for Violence but Not for Sex." But for now, let's look at some of history's answers.

How the Telecommunications Act of 1996 impacted radio.

The business of radio is being altered by deregulation and changes in ownership rules. To ensure that there were many different perspectives in the cultural forum, the FCC had long limited the number of radio stations one person or company could own to one AM and one FM locally and seven AMs and seven FMs nationally. These numbers were revised upward in the late 1980s, and controls were almost totally eliminated by the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Now, due to this deregulation, there are no national ownership limits, and one person or company can own as many as eight stations in one area, depending on the size of the market. This situation has allowed duopoly—one person or company owning and managing multiple radio stations in a single market—to explode.

Define vertical integration

The combination in one firm of two or more stages of production usually operated by separate firms

naive realism

The conviction that we perceive things "as they really are," underestimating how much we are interpreting or "spinning" what we see. the belief or assumption that one's sense perceptions provide direct knowledge of external reality, unconditioned by one's perceptual apparatus or individual perspective

Be familiar with the term disintermediation and be able to recognize an example

The debate over self- versus traditional publishing is really a disagreement over the value of disintermediation, eliminating gatekeepers between artists and audiences. Eliminate the middlemen and more original content of greater variety from fresher voices gets to more people. Keep the middlemen and quality is assured, and while an occasional interesting work or new voice might be missed, the industry's overall product remains superior. For books, disintermediation in the form of self-publication runs the gamut from completely self-published-and-promoted works to self-publishing with an assist, with digital publishers providing a full range of services—copyediting, securing and commissioning artwork, cover design, promotion, and in some cases, distribution of traditional paper books to brick-and-mortar bookstores.

What is the Overton Window and what are the practical implications of this idea?

The difficulty of answering these questions derives, in part, from what is called the Overton Window. Named for the work done by policy analyst Joseph P. Overton, the Overton Window refers to the range of political ideas that the public will find reasonable or acceptable at any given time. The idea is that there is a vast assortment of possible political ideas out there in the world, and that the public in general is only willing to accept a certain range of them at any particular moment. Sometimes the public is willing to accept more conservative ideas, for example, and other times it finds more liberal ideas acceptable. This is not to say that a particular era of time is only liberal or conservative, just that the window of what we think of as reasonable changes over time. If you consider any issue, political or otherwise, there is an Overton Window for how the public thinks about that issue. The real genius of the Overton Window, however, is the realization that it is possible to move the window of acceptability by intentionally making arguments that are closer to the extreme end of the political spectrum.

How was advertising viewed as a career early on and what mass medium changed this perception?

The earliest commercial advertisements were for books and quack medicines, but by the 1650s, the variety of products being advertised had increased markedly. Advances in printing allowed retailers and manufacturers to print handbills and trade cards.

difference between access journalism and accountability journalism

The easiest way to understand the difference between the two strains, Starkman argues, is that "access reporting tells readers what powerful actors say while accountability reporting tells readers what they do."12 Another way to understand the distinction is that access journalism is about profiling newsmakers, while accountability journalism is about probing their words and actions. While Starkman believes both forms of journalism will always have an important place, only accountability journalism "speaks to, and for, the broader public."13 It's important to understand that accountability journalism and objective journalism are not the same thing.

Where did the oldest printed text and the use of block printing on paper begin?

The first of these is block printing. This is a method of printing that is achieved by creating blocks (whether literal wood blocks or "blocks" made of other materials) that have raised surfaces at the top forming a pattern of some kind—an image, a letter, a word, a symbol, or so on. These raised surfaces are covered in ink, then paper (or the equivalent) is pressed onto them to created a reversed image on the page. The easiest way to picture block printing is to imagine a rubber stamp. Early block printing examples from China are usually pictures of things like flowers, rather than text, and entire images were carved into a single wood block.

What were dime novels? What was their focus? What was their contribution to the larger book industry?

The growing popularity of books was noticed by brothers Irwin and Erastus Beadle. In 1860 they began publishing novels that sold for 10 cents. These dime novels were inexpensive, and because they concentrated on frontier and adventure stories, they attracted growing numbers of readers. Dime novels were "paperback books" because they were produced with paper covers. But publisher Allen Lane invented what we now recognize as the paperback in the midst of the Great Depression in London when he founded Penguin Books in 1935. Four years later, publisher Robert de Graff introduced the idea to the United States. His Pocket Books were small, inexpensive (25 cents) reissues of books that had already become successful as hardcovers. They were sold just about everywhere—newsstands, bookstores, train stations, shipping terminals, and drug and department stores.

Epic of Gilgamesh

The history of printing is ancient, not modern. Over 5,000 years ago, around 3100 BCE, the Sumerians (living in modern-day Iraq and Kuwait) were using printing tools the create symbols in clay using a writing system known as cuneiform. The Sumerians produced a series of poems called The Epic of Gilgamesh around 2100 BCE, which is widely considered to be the oldest piece of epic literature. As the centuries passed, various forms of paper, ink, and printing tools were developed independently around the ancient world, although there was unquestionably some intermixing of methods and technologies through trade.

What is the purpose of joint operating agreements?

The newspaper industry has seen a dramatic decline in competition. This has taken two forms: loss of competing papers and concentration of ownership. In 1923, 502 American cities had two or more competing (having different ownership) dailies. Today, fewer than 12 have separate competing papers. With print circulation and advertising revenues continuing to fall for urban dailies, very few cities can support more than one paper. Congress attempted to reverse this trend with the 1970 Newspaper Preservation Act, which allowed joint operating agreements (JOAs). A JOA permits a failing paper to merge most aspects of its business with a successful local competitor as long as their editorial and reporting operations remain separate. The philosophy is that it is better to have two more-or-less independent papers in one city than to allow one to close. Six cities, including Detroit, Michigan, and Charleston, West Virginia, currently have JOAs. The concern that drove the creation of JOAs was editorial diversity. Cities with only one newspaper have only one newspaper editorial voice. This runs counter to two long-held American beliefs about the relationship between a free press and its readers: • Truth flows from a multitude of tongues. • The people are best served by a number of antagonistic voices.

Be familiar with details of yellow journalism - what it was, its target audience, its popularity, when it began, key players.

The phrase yellow journalism (originally coined around 1897)1 generally refers to a brand of journalism characterized by exaggeration, sensationalism, and an attitude that any sort of journalistic behavior is acceptable as long as it results in greater readership. In many ways, yellow journalism was a precursor to modern tabloid journalism—though the yellow journalism of the late 1800s and early 1900s took place within mainstream newspapers. Publications like The New York Post are probably the closest modern analog to the original yellow journalism, although nearly all modern journalism has been influenced by its methods. Not only did yellow journalism lead to a fascination with excess and sensationalism, it also influenced multiple strains of modern activist journalism.2 The upcoming chapter casually mentions that "yellow journalism" drew its name from a popular cartoon character of the time—The Yellow Kid—but there is a lot more to that story, all of which helps explain why journalism in America evolved the way it did. Let's start with a little more detail about that famous cartoon character.

What were the purposes of the Stamp Act of 1765? Who imposed it? How was it received by Colonial Americans?

The printers went into open revolt against official control in March 1765 after passage of the Stamp Act. Designed by England to recoup money it spent waging the French and Indian War, the Stamp Act mandated that all printing—legal documents, books, magazines, and newspapers—be done on paper stamped with the government's seal. Its additional purpose was to control and limit expression in the increasingly restless colonies. This affront to their freedom, and the steep cost of the tax—sometimes doubling the price of a publication—was simply too much for the colonists. The printers used their presses to run accounts of antitax protests, demonstrations, riots, sermons, boycotts, and other antiauthority activities, further fueling revolutionary sympathies. In November 1765—when the tax was to take effect—the authorities were so cowed by the reaction of the colonists that they were unwilling to enforce it.

pilot

The producer must then shop the idea to one of the networks; naturally, an invited producer submits the proposal only to the network that asked for it. In either case, if the network is persuaded, it buys the option and asks for a written outline in which the original idea is refined. If still interested, the network will order a full script. If the network approves that script, it will order the production of a pilot. Pilots are then subjected to rigorous testing by the networks' own and independent audience research organizations.

Define prior restraint and recognize an example.

This is the power of the government to prevent the publication or broadcast of expression. U.S. law and tradition make the use of prior restraint relatively rare, but there have been a number of important efforts by government to squelch content before dissemination. In 1931 the Supreme Court ruled in Near v. Minnesota that freedom from prior restraint was a general, not an absolute, principle. Two of the four exceptions it listed were in times of war when national security was involved and when the public order would be endangered by the incitement to violence and overthrow by force of orderly government. These exceptions were to become the basis of two landmark prior restraint decisions. The first, involving The New York Times, dealt with national security in times of war; the second, focusing on protecting the public order, involved publishing instructions for building an atomic bomb.

digital divide

This leaves out many U.S. citizens—those on the wrong side of the digital divide, the lack of technological access among specific groups of Americans. Although 87% of all Americans regularly access the Internet, usage rates lag for those less educated, people with disabilities, those with lower incomes, those in rural areas, Hispanic and African American households, and less affluent elderly people with disabilities.

hoc balancing of interest approaches to First Amendment.

This less-than-absolutist approach is called the ad hoc balancing of interests. That is, in individual First Amendment cases several factors should be weighed in determining how much freedom the press is granted. In his dissent to the Court's 1941 decision in Bridges v. California, a case involving a Los Angeles Times editorial, Justice Felix Frankfurter wrote that free speech and press is "not so absolute or irrational a conception as to imply paralysis of the means for effective protection of all the freedoms secured by the Bill of Rights. . . . In the cases before us, the claims on behalf of freedom of speech and of the press encounter claims on behalf of liberties no less precious

What was advertising on television like prior to the 1960s?

Throughout the 1950s the networks served primarily as time brokers, offering airtime and distribution (their affiliates) and accepting payment for access to both. Except for their own news and sports coverage, the networks relied on outside agencies to provide programs. An advertising agency, for example, would hire a production company to produce a program for its client. That client would then be the show's sponsor—The Kraft Television Theatre and Westinghouse Studio One are two examples. The agency would then pay a network to air the program over its national collection of stations. This system had enriched the networks during the heyday of radio, and they saw no reason to change.

Clayton Antitrust Act

Thus, in 1914, congress passed The Clayton Antitrust Act. This act took several steps to clarify existing law and add new antitrust provisions. It banned anti-competitive price discrimination, it banned mergers and acquisitions that damaged competition, and it declared that no person could be a director of two competing corporations. Crucially, it also outlawed the practice of selling only to those who agree not to deal with a competitor. So, for example, if Coca-Cola refused to sell to QuikTrip unless QuikTrip promised not to sell Pepsi products, that would violate the Clayton Antitrust Act—at least in theory.

Recognize examples of targeting/niche marketing

To survive, radio and magazines were forced to find new functions. No longer able to compete on a mass scale, these media targeted smaller audiences that were alike in some important characteristic and therefore more attractive to specific advertisers. So now we have magazines such as Psychology Today and Brides, and radio station formats such as Country, Urban, and Lithuanian. This phenomenon is known as narrowcasting, niche marketing, or targeting.

What does it mean for a journalist to practice story-balancing? What are the benefits? What are the drawbacks?

Too often critics argue, journalists interpret the imperative of objective journalism to be "fair" as a requirement that news must give equal weight to both sides of any story. This is known as story-balancing, and has become a hallmark of modern journalism. If you are reporting about a conflict between different political parties, the idea goes, then the easiest way to achieve fairness is to make sure you report the arguments of both parties, and that you give them equal treatment and credence in your article. Similarly, if you are reporting about a conflict between a company and protestors, you give both sides equal coverage. Unfortunately, this approach has several drawbacks. First, it imagines that every conflict is composed of two sides—only two, no more, no less. In fact, most substantive conflicts have many different sides which cannot be simplified into two perspectives. Second, story-balancing tends to overstate conflict and ignore consensus. If one "side" of a conflict makes an argument, for example, journalists often try to balance the story by finding someone from "the other side" who disagrees with that argument. In most cases even opposing sides have substantial areas of agreement, but covering that kind of consensus is not as much of a priority for those seeking journalistic fairness.

Know characteristics of newsworthiness and be able to differentiate between them

What Makes a Story Interesting to Readers? Everybody's different—and what's fascinating to you might be boooring to me. Still, for a story to qualify as "news," it usually contains at least one of these values: • IMPACT: Does the story matter to readers? Will it have an effect on their lives or their pocketbooks? The bigger the consequences, the bigger the story becomes. • IMMEDIACY: Has this story just happened? Is it about to happen? Timeliness is crucial, especially when you're competing against other news outlets. • PROXIMITY: How close is this story? Local events will matter more to readers than events in other cities, states or countries . . . . . usually. • PROMINENCE: Does this story involve a well-known public figure or celebrity? The more recognizable the name, the more readers will be concerned or curious. • NOVELTY: Is something new, odd or surprising going on? (Did a man bite a dog?) Readers enjoy news that's intriguing and unexpected. • CONFLICT: Is there a clash of power? A political battle? A sports rivalry? Reporters and readers both enjoy dramatic confrontations. • EMOTIONS: Does this story make us sad? Happy? Angry? We all respond emotionally to human-interest stories that are poignant, comical or inspiring

Oligopoly

a concentration of media industries into an ever smaller number of companies—on the mass communication process is enormous

representation

a person or group acting on behalf of another person or group. The basis for most of the interrelated controversies around race and media is the substantial body of research about representation of minorities in the media—the way minorities are portrayed, described, and otherwise depicted in various media. For many years, this research has focused primarily on television as the most popular and therefore most influential mass medium.

Be familiar with different techniques and strategies that public relations uses to attract public attention.

a pseudo-event, an event staged specifically to attract public attention. Benjamin Franklin organized a sophisticated campaign to thwart the Stamp Act, the Crown's attempt to limit colonial press freedom, using his publications and the oratory skills of criers (see the chapter on books). The Federalist Papers of John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton were originally a series of 85 letters published between 1787 and 1789, which were designed to sway public opinion in the newly independent United States toward support and passage of the new Constitution, an early effort at issue management. In all these examples, people or organizations were using communication to inform, to build an image, and to influence public opinion.

Why are the press referred to as "the fourth estate"?

a term that is often misunderstood. The origins of this phrase go back to the medieval European notion that there were three sources of political power: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. These were known as the three estates. In the late 1800s, the term "fourth estate" came to be associated with the press, referencing the fact that journalists are politically influential even though they don't play a formal role in the government.

mass society theory

a theory of social movements that assumes people join not because of the movement's ideals but to satisfy a psychological need to belong to something larger than themselves. Idea, propagated by cultural and societal elites, that the media are corrupting influences that undermine the social order; "average" people are defenseless against the influence.

access journalism

access journalism— journalism in which reporters trade away some of their objective practices and traditional adversarial stance in exchange for access to the most prominent newsmakers of the day. In essence, journalists agree to treat the targets of their reporting in a relatively friendly manner, and in exchange the newsmakers they deal with agree to give the journalists interviews and other kinds of access to their lives and their insights.

stripped

broadcast at the same time five evenings a week

JCR Licklider

developed the internet. In the decentralization version, as early as 1956 psychologist Joseph C. R. Licklider, a devotee of Marshall McLuhan's thinking on the power of communication technology, foresaw linked computers creating a country of citizens "informed about, and interested in, and involved in, the process of government" (as quoted in Hafner & Lyon, 1996, p. 34). He foresaw "home computer consoles" and television sets connected in a nationwide network. "The political process would essentially be a giant teleconference," he wrote, "and a campaign would be a months-long series of communications among candidates, propagandists, commentators, political action groups, and voters. The key," he added, "is the self-motivating exhilaration that accompanies truly effective interaction with information through a good console and a good network to a good computer" (p. 34).

Differentiation

differentiation means providing consumers a specific reason to choose one product over another. So, distinction techniques help you tell the difference between McDonalds and Wendy's, while a USP might say McDonalds is the better choice because it's cheaper or because its fries are better. When Wendy's first began competing with McDonalds, they had USPs like "our burgers are square" and "our burgers are juicy."

Differentiate between disinformation and misinformation.

disinformation (deliberate sharing of false information) as opposed to misinformation (unintentional sharing of false information)

attitude inoculation

making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position. occurs when you consider the argument against your attitude, and as a result, you become more immune to attempts to future attitude change. This occurs by showing the person small doses of argument contrary to their position.

mediated communication

mediated communication - communication in which messages are conveyed via a specific technological medium

The Diamond Sutra

printing presses were in use in China during the 600s CE, 800 years before Gutenberg. These Chinese presses used large wood blocks instead of movable type. Even so, this block printing technology produced some very important texts. One of these early works was The Diamond Sutra, "acknowledged as the oldest dated printed book in existence.1 The Sutra itself is a 17-and-a-half-foot-long scroll that contains a sacred Mahayana Buddhist text. It was not until 1041 CE that moveable type came into use in China with the advent of individual characters and words made from baked clay, but that was still 400 years before Gutenberg. In 1377, many decades before Gutenberg, Korean artisans printed a book of Buddhist teachings using metal moveable type. So Gutenberg was certainly not the first person to develop a printing press using metal movable type.

What mass medium did television supplant to become the most popular in the 1950s?

radio

Near v. Minnesota

the 1931 Supreme Court decision holding that the first amendment protects newspapers from prior restraint. There is much less confusion about another important aspect of press freedom, prior restraint. This is the power of the government to prevent the publication or broadcast of expression. U.S. law and tradition make the use of prior restraint relatively rare, but there have been a number of important efforts by government to squelch content before dissemination. In 1931 the Supreme Court ruled in Near v. Minnesota that freedom from prior restraint was a general, not an absolute, principle. Two of the four exceptions it listed were in times of war when national security was involved and when the public order would be endangered by the incitement to violence and overthrow by force of orderly government. These exceptions were to become the basis of two landmark prior restraint decisions. The first, involving The New York Times, dealt with national security in times of war; the second, focusing on protecting the public order, involved publishing instructions for building an atomic bomb

What did the Postal Act of 1879 do with regard to magazines?

the Postal Act of 1879, which permitted mailing magazines at cheaper second-class postage rates, and the spread of the railroad, which carried people and publications westward from the East Coast, were two others. A fourth was the reduction in cost. As long as magazines sold for 35 cents—a lot of money for the time—they were read largely by the upper class.

Define and recognize the third-person effect

the common attitude that others are influenced by media messages that we are not. we are media literate enough to understand the influence of mass communication on the attitudes, behaviors, and values of others but not self-aware or honest enough to see its influence on our lives

Fair Use

the conditions under which you can use material that is copyrighted by someone else without paying royalties. The exception to copyright is fair use, instances in which material can be used without permission or payment. Fair use includes (1) limited noncommercial use, such as photocopying a passage from a novel for classroom use; (2) use of limited portions of a work, such as excerpting a few lines or a paragraph or two from a book for use in a magazine article; (3) use that does not decrease the commercial value of the original, such as videotaping a daytime football game for private, at-home evening viewing; and (4) use in the public interest, such as Consumer Reports's use of pieces of drug company television commercials to highlight its media literacy efforts.

What is an ad-pull policy?

the demand for an advance review of a magazine's content, with the threat of pulled advertising if dissatisfied with that content. The advertising agencies for oil giant BP and financial services company Morgan Stanley shocked the magazine industry by demanding just that—in the case of BP, insisting that it be informed "in advance of any news text or visuals magazines plan to publish that directly mention the company, a competitor, or the oil-and-energy industry" (Sanders & Halliday, 2005).

Two-Step Flow Theory

the idea that media's influence on people's behavior is limited by opinion leaders—people who initially consume media content, interpret it in light of their own values and beliefs, and then pass it on to opinion followers, who have less frequent contact with media. Idea that media's influence on people's behavior is limited by opinion leaders, who consume content, interpret it in light of their own values and beliefs, and pass it on to opinion followers. Therefore the source of effects is interpersonal rather than mass communication.

Recognize examples of the hostile media effect

the idea that people see media coverage of important topics of interest as less sympathetic to their position, more sympathetic to the opposing position, and generally hostile to their point of view regardless of the quality of the coverage

Net Neutrality

the principle that all Internet traffic should be treated equally by Internet Service Providers. There are frequent fights over network neutrality (often just net neutrality), the requirement that all ISPs, including cable MSOs (multiple system operators), allow free and equal flow of all Web traffic. For example, if all sites were not equal, one that was willing (and able) to pay would have its content transmitted to people's computers more quickly. Another, a political activist site for example, that was unwilling (or unable) to pay would have its content slowed down.

Globalization

the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.

Rhetorical Criticism

the process of using a method or standards to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of messages

time shifting

the process whereby television viewers record shows and watch them later, when it is convenient for them. taping a show for later viewing

accountability journalism

work that encompasses fact-checking, explanatory and investigative reporting, but more generally applies to the journalistic work of holding the powerful accountable. which is also known as investigative or public service journalism. This kind of journalism traces its roots back to the muckrakers, with their daring investigations and their long-form articles in newspapers and magazine.

ambient advertising

writer Matthew Creamer, "Like a fly repeatedly bouncing off a closed window, the ad industry is trying to fix the problem by doing more of the same. That is, by creating more ads" (2007, p. 1). Often those ads are ambient advertising, sometimes referred to as 360 marketing, and by whatever name, they are showing up in some fairly nontraditional settings. This is because advertisers know that "we, the public, are so good at avoiding or ignoring traditional advertising. We are fickle fish, cynical creatures who have already been hooked so many times that the simpler lures no longer work" (Wu, 2016b). So Sony hires graffiti artists in major cities to spray-paint ads for its PlayStation Portable on walls and buildings. Officials in Brooklawn, New Jersey, sell naming rights to school facilities—the gym at the Alice Costello Elementary School is now the ShopRite of Brooklawn Center. The National Park Service sells naming rights to our national parks, and moviemakers pay pastors to mention their films in their sermons (Wu, 2016a).