SO 100 Final Exam

Racialization

*Racialization: the formation of new racial identities in which the boundaries of race are drawn or redrawn around formerly unnoticed groups of people. - Example: How the US Census definitions of racial categories differs over time. · Due to racialization, the development of new racial categories fails to acknowledge diversity and can be reductive. -The act or process of imbuing a person with a consciousness of race distinctions

Curriculum

- (Formal curriculum) : actual content, like reading, writing, math; vocational programs - U.S. Stats: 14% of nation is illiterate after 16 years+, insufficient math skills 30% population over 16 years

Affirmative Action

- A policy designed to redress past discrimination against women and minority groups through measures to improve their economic and educational opportunities - Mostly benefited women

Total Institution

- A total institution is a place of work and residence where a great number of similarly situated people, cut off from the wider community for a considerable time, together lead an enclosed, formally administered round of life. The concept is mostly associated with the work of sociologist Erving Goffman. ● Ex) boarding school, military, etc. ● Surveillance not just in total institutions, it is everywhere

Glass Ceiling

- An invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder · There are invisible barriers to women's roles · Women hold positions of lower status and pay

Cultural scripts

- Behavior modes and understanding that are not universal or natural, but that may strongly shape beliefs or concepts held by society

Colorblind racism

- Believing that race and racism do not exist and/or do not matter in today's world. - Examples: "I don't see color" and attributing inequality between white people and people of color to causes other than racism.

Class, status, and power/party

- Class = Social structural position a group holds relative to the economic - social - political resources of society - Status = Ascribed status : Born with ex. gender or race - Achieved status - One obtains this over the course of life - education

Concerted Cultivation vs. Natural Growth

- Concerted Cultivation: carried out by middle/upper class; immersing children in various adult institutions through constant extracurricular activities and encouraging a sense of entitlement - Natural Growth: carried out by lower class; giving children long stretches of leisure time and daily interactions with kin; leaves children ill-prepared for real life

Sexuality

- Desire, sexual preference, and sexual identity and behavior (Sexuality is viewed as a person's capacity for sexual feelings) - Non heterosexual individuals will find increased difficulty in social mobility and increased discrimination

Divorce

- Divorce is the final termination of a marital union, canceling the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, and dissolving the bonds of matrimony between the parties. ... The legal process of divorce may also involve issues of alimony, child custody, child support, distribution of property, and division of debt. - Household structures change over time · Divorce and marriage rate declining, fertility rates are declining · Annual income and college graduation are two of the biggest factors in the decrease of people getting a divorce

Taylorism and scientific mangement

- Founded by sociologist Frederick Taylor. - Frederick Taylor's scientific management theory, also called the classical management theory, emphasizes efficiency, much like Max Weber's. However, according to Taylor, rather than scolding employees for every minor mistake, employers should reward workers for increased productivity. - Its main objective is improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes to management.

Gender

- Gender = social: socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women

Heteronormativity

- Heteronormativity is the idea that attraction and relationships between one man and one woman are the normal form of sexuality, that sex itself should involve a penis penetrating a vagina, and that any other forms of sexuality, or gender, are not normal, or at least not as normal as this. - Promotes homophobia

SAT: Utility and Critiques

- High School GPA is a stronger predictor of the same metrics. admissions make the same decision in 84% of applicants - Only predicts college outcomes for white students, not the same for Black and Latinx students - How meritocratic is it? What are we actually measuring? - Consistently correlated with race, ethnicity, and class. Black and Latinx students are inherently less intelligent, we must accept that the SAT is biased towards white and higher income students - When studies control for class background, the SAT'S predictive power diminishes

Higher Education

- Higher Education • same job 50 years ago only required a high school diploma, now requires a college degree - Limited largely to upper class whites - Adds to one's cultural capital

Homonormativity

- Homonormativity is the privileging of heteronormative ideals and constructs onto LGBT culture and identity. It is predicated on the assumption that the norms and values of heterosexuality should be replicated and performed among homosexual people. - The assimilation of heteronormative ideals and constructs into LGBTQ culture in an attempt at "normalization"

Optional Ethnicities

- How white people can choose ethnicity without any real social costs because of their social status.

Variables (IV, DV)

- Independent variable - independent variables are typically thought of as being the cause - Dependent variables are often seen as being the effect. The independent variable, in other words, affects the dependent variable in some way.

Interest Convergence Hypothesis (Bell)

- Interest convergence is a theory coined by sociologist Derrick Bell - Interest convergence stipulates that black people achieve civil rights victories only when white and black interests converge. - The signature example is Brown v. Board of Education, which happened because it advanced white interests too

Social Movements

- Large group of people who are organized to promote or resist some social change - Collective behavior that is purposeful, organized, and institutionalized but not ritualized; efforts by large groups of people to bring about changes they think necessary and desirable in society.

Material and nonmaterial culture

- Material culture: everything that is a part of our built environment books, fashion and monuments - Nonmaterial culture: language, values symbols, beliefs

Reformist Social Movements

- Movements seeking to bring about social change within the existing economic and political system - Gay marriage and civil rights

Motherhood Penalty

- Negative lifetime impact on earnings for women who raise children (granted less full days of work and reduced hours) -At the very top of the income distribution for women, there is no motherhood penalty at all. But at the bottom of the wage distribution, low income women bear a significant and costly motherhood penalty. -Similarly, the motherhood penalty compares women with varying numbers of children (including the childless) to see how children reduce earnings. My research into the impact of parenthood on worker's earnings suggests that gender pay gaps widen with parenthood. The impact of parenthood plays out differently for men and women, and differently by social class (as marked by education, professional status, and earnings).

Post Fordism

- New era of capitalistic economic production - Work at a speed dictated by computers - Hours flexible - less service protection - Results in sweatshops, deindustrialization, and increased productivity, labor time, and stagnant wages (productivity - compensation gap)

Is inequality necessary for economic growth?

- No, when income inequality rises, economic growth falls. - Must work to fix the issues of capitalism or switch our governmental system

Hidden Curriculum

- Nonacademic, latent, and less overt content about values, norms, rules, behaviors - Ex's: Bells, punctuality, punishment for cheating, authority, and obedience

Social Control Agents

- Police, psychiatrists

Schooling (Public, private)

- Public: school choice, Met Co, Charter School (state funded) - Private: religious, boarding schools (privately funded) *School funding comes from: 9.1% federal, 46.5% state, and 44.4% local.

Transformative Social Movements

- Seek to completely destroy the old social order and replace it with a new one - Transform system than equity; ex. Prison abolition, defunding police

Sex

- Sex = biological: classification of people as male or female at birth based on bodily characteristics, chromosomes, hormones, internal reproductive organs, and genitalia

Stratification

- Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power. -However, sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes inequalities apparent.

Status and status inconsistency

- Status describes the position a person occupies in a particular setting. It is learned. Can be communicated through other means than wealth. -Ex: An individual may occupy the statuses of student, employee, and club president and play one or more roles with each one. -Status inconsistency: Status inconsistency is a situation where an individual's social positions have both positive and negative influences on his or her social status. Introduced by the sociologist Gerhard Lenski in the 1950s, status inconsistency theories predict that people whose statuses are inconsistent will be more frustrated and dissatisfied than people with consistent statuses. For example, a teacher may have a positive societal image (respect, prestige, etc.), which increases her status but she may earn little money, which simultaneously decreases her status.

"The Charmed Circle"

- The "Charmed Circle" speaks to the idea that there is a hierarchical valuation of sex acts. In this essay, Rubin also discusses a number of ideological formations that permeate sexual views. The most important is sex negativity, in which Western cultures consider sex to be a dangerous, destructive force. If marriage, reproduction, or love are not involved, almost all sexual behavior is considered bad. - Gayle Rubin's charmed circle diagram characterises a hierarchy of types of sex, whereby some sex is treated as 'good, normal, natural, blessed' and other sex is treated as 'bad, abnormal, unnatural, damned' (Rubin 1984). (relates to sexuality)

Reproductive Justice

- The complete physical, mental, spiritual, political, social, and economic well-being of women and girls, based on the full achievement and protection of women's human rights. - Reproductive justice is "the human right to maintain personal bodily autonomy, have children, not have children, and parent the children we have in safe and sustainable communities" - Goes against pro-life values that are often mostly disagreed with anyway by women of color and low income

School to Prison Pipeline

- The established relationship between severe disciplinary practices, increased rates of dropping out of school, lowered academic achievement, and court or juvenile detention involvement among minorities - The Pipeline to Prison: The U.S. has the highest incarceration rate in the world, and its prisons and jails are overwhelmingly filled with African Americans and Latinos. The paths to prison for young African-American and Latino men are many, but the starting points are often school and foster care systems - Quick facts: 40% of students expelled from U.S. schools each year are Black, 70% of students involved in "in-school arrests" were Black or Latino, Black students are 3.5x more likely to be suspended than white students, Black and Latinos are 2x as likely to not graduate high school than whites.

Intersectionality

- The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage. · Intersectionality is a framework that explores both co-existing identities and connected systems of oppression · Intersectionality allows us to see how oppression works · Intersectionality and matrix of domination help sociologists understand power relations and oppressions against minority groups

Glass Escalator

- The promotional ride men take to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs · Men are advantaged in female positions · Ex: men working as teachers were invited to be on administration and paid more from the start · Women earn 8% less than men for being elementary and middle school teachers

Threshold Theory

- The theory holds that above a certain level, intelligence doesn't have much effect on creativity: most creative people are pretty smart, but they don't have to be that smart, at least as measured by conventional intelligence tests. An IQ of 120, indicating that someone is very smart but not exceptionally so, is generally considered sufficient for creative genius. - First longitudinal study (spanned decades) Being in the top 1 percent of intelligence has no correlation with being fantastically creative. Rather, there is a minimum threshold of intelligence that you need to have, and after that it comes down to a lot of deliberate practice, putting in your reps, and developing your skill set.

The Second Shift

- The unpaid housework and child care often expected of women after they complete their day's paid labor The Second Shift - Arlie Hochschild · How has the moving of women into the work force impacted families · The Second Shift o Case study at a Fortune 500 Company o Women spent more time dealing with children and in the house o Happiest families are present when both husband and wife share "the second shift"

Culture

- The values, norms, language, revered symbols, and materials goods characteristics of a particular group - Culture is composed of signs; it is symbolic with material effects. It is SHARED, LEARNED, TAKEN FOR GRANTED, and often INVISIBLE! - Represented in words, ideas, images, music, etc

White Privilege and White Supremacy

- White privilege - rights or immunities granted to people as a particular benefit or favor simply because they are white. Whites think of white privilege as invisible. - White supremacy - related to white privilege, the belief that white people & European nations should control people of color so to maintain white power, culture, privilege, and wealth. -More recently, sociologists have begun to encourage us to think of white supremacy as an ideology, as a collection of ideas that encourage us to value whiteness (white norms, white culture and white people) more highly and above other cultures. (stems from white privilege)

Capitalism

- an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. - For sociologists, capitalism has mainly been of interest for its social effects—how it has led to class struggle, anomie, inequality and social problems in general.

Matrix of Domination

- the interlocking systems of oppression associated with race, class, and gender - Who is likely to be oppressed/dominated? (Black/Hispanic, women, young-adults and elderly) - Who is more than likely to be the oppressor? (Middle aged, male, Caucasians)

Edward Said's Critique

-"Orientalism" is a way of seeing that imagines, emphasizes, exaggerates and distorts differences of Arab peoples and cultures as compared to that of Europe and the U.S. It often involves seeing Arab culture as exotic, backward, uncivilized, and at times dangerous. -Said's main thesis was that the Western image of the East was heavily biased by colonialist attitudes, racism, and more than two centuries of political exploitation. Although Said's critique was controversial, the impact of his ideas has been a pervasive rethinking of Western perceptions of Eastern cultures, plus a tendency to view all scholarship in Oriental Studies as tainted by considerations of power and prejudice.

Spuriousness

-3rd variable is actually responsible for an observed relationship between 2 other variables (The variable outside of the hypothesis)

"Iron cage"

-A concept developed by Max Weber -Weber explained that as the force of Protestantism decreased in social life over time, the system of capitalism remained, as did the social structure and principles of bureaucracy that had evolved along with it. -This bureaucratic social structure, and the values, beliefs, and worldviews that supported and sustained it, became central to shaping social life. Capitalism is a cage because based on class you are stuck. *(Efficiency and control) - Iron cage of rationalization leads to disenchantment with the world ● Describes the increased rationalization inherent in social life. ● This bureaucratic social structure, and the values, beliefs, and worldviews that supported and sustained it, became central to shaping social life.

Race to the Bottom

-A socio-economic phrase to describe government deregulation of the business environment, or reduction in tax rates, in order to attract or retain economic activity in their jurisdictions. - A race to the bottom represents an unbalanced economic condition where there is a surplus of labor relative to work. When the amount of work is less than the available workers, each worker will reduce their wages willing until they approach the poverty level or less. In the end the purchaser of labor makes all the profit and all the workers starve.

Social Constructivism

-A variant of constructivism that emphasizes the role of social discourse in the development of ideas and identities -It means that we attach meanings (social, cultural, economic) to phenomena. This means that reality is built, or constructed, rather than innate (constructivism)

Party pathway

-Armstrong and Hamilton distinguish three pathways by which students move through a university. -The professional pathway fits ambitious students from privileged families and rests on competition cultivated in high school. Students with AP credit skip the big introductory university classes to take the smaller seminars with more intensive faculty contact. Students aiming for a professional career also search out leadership positions in student or philanthropic organizations. -The mobility pathway caters to students of diverse social backgrounds, pointing them to majors connected to specific jobs such as nursing, accounting, or teaching. This pathway depends on academic engagement and social integration but not on heavy partying. -The partying pathway indulges students who are interested in a fun, party-filled college experience with few academic demands. Universities accommodate these students with easy majors, ways to opt out of challenging course requirements, and schedules compatible with partying. The "fun" aspect of the party pathway is often delegated to fraternities and sororities, which provide their members with alcohol, partners for hooking-up, and a demanding schedule of meetings and activities.

Key points of Alexander's "The Color of Justice"

-Arrests largely racialized -Crack sentencing laws for example were racially discriminatory -Racial disparities present in those given the death sentence -Studies show become people increasingly harsh when a criminal is darker -Black men demonized during the War on Drugs and people began to associate colored people with deviant behavior

Social control

-Attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior ● Social control agents: police, psychiatrists ● Where does the "deviant" label come from? ● History of madness → usually women and people of color ● Tiger Woods example: him accepting his label

Fatherhood Bonus

-Increased wages and career advancement that fathers experience when being a part of a family structure because they are perceived as needing to provide for people and fulfilling their responsibilities as citizens within patriarchy and capitalism. -Men with high incomes see the largest pay increase for having children; contributes to wealth gap

Cultural Capital (Embodied, Institutional, Objectified)

-Cultural capital being defined by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu as, "the cultural knowledge that serves as a currency that helps us navigate culture and alters our experiences." (Bourdieu The Forms of Capital). -More simply, the term cultural capital refers to the things we possess that help us move up in society. -Embodied cultural capital refers to the incorporation of cultural attitudes and practices within an individual. (the cultural resources we store in our body, also learned from family) -Institutionalized cultural capital refers to when an institution recognizes an individual's cultural capital and is usually in the form of educational degrees. Master's and Doctorate degrees are examples of institutionalized cultural capital. -Objectified cultural capital refers to cultural goods that have a unique meaning in a culture. A drum set, piano, violin, and harp are examples of objectified cultural capital.

Double Consciousness

-Developed by Du Bois and discussed in "The Souls of Black Folk 1935" -Double consciousness is the internal conflict experienced by subordinated or colonized groups in an oppressive society. -More simply, "veil of looking at oneself through the eyes of whites" (2 selves in one body, conflicting over your true identity and your oppressor's crooked view on your identity) -"How does it feel to be a problem?"

Functionalism

-Developed by Durkheim -Functionalism, in social sciences, theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc.—serve a purpose and that all are indispensable for the long-term survival of the society. -Even homelessness serves a function: encourages other people not to meet the same fate § Function of social order § Men will do physical tasks § Women will do emotional tasks ● Inequality motivates people to fill different positions in society. ● Poor serve functions: create need for social services, do undesirable jobs, provide 'moral standard' for others. ● Sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability ● "Gender Inequalities" exist as an efficient way to create a division of labor. ○ Division of labor also works to maximize resources and efficiently

Sociological approaches to religion

-Durkheim: Functionalism; religion increases social solidarity through objects and rituals of worship, creates collective consciousness or shared ground identity -Du Bois: Religion serves as an important purpose for disenfranchised groups; a "basic rock" which served as an anchor for Black American communities, and also provided services (money, shelter, food) that they were systematically excluded from -Marx: "Religion is the opiate of the masses... All religion is nothing but the fantastic reflection in men's minds of those external forces which control their daily lives." -Weber "Protestant Ethic" work as a "divine calling." Duty to increase wealth (but not "enjoy it," moral duty to make money, moneymaking as validation in itself) wealth as a divine gift from God that indicates good character/predestination into heaven. -Protestant ideals (rationalization, ascents, and individualism; save earn accumulate) meld with capitalist ideals -> the spirit of capitalism

Qualitative research - Observational studies

-Example: Ethnography, Participant Observation, Field Research (often plagued with assumptions) -Focus on story telling and writing -Can be life history interviews to direct observation of social interaction to embedded participant observation -Often obtrusive and is "on-the-scene learning" -Get at what people actually think ● Qualitative researchers are mostly interested in studying the unusual and the deviant.

Quantitative research - Numerical studies

-Example: Surveys, statistical modeling, archived data -Quantifiable data, can be laid out in statistical modeling (empirical data, numbers) -More scientific and objective

Experiments

-Experimenter manipulates independent variable -At least two levels of independent variable -Random assignment -Settings: laboratory, field experiment (ex: Pager's work on the impact of a criminal record on a job candidate's prospects or violence in children's play)

The Sociological Imagination

-From C. Wright Mills "The Promise" -"Intersection between biography and history" (many aspects we attribute to ourselves are actually socially and historically determined) -The ability to step out of our own context. ● First lesson: The individual can understand their own experience + determine their own fate by locating themselves within their period. ○ they can know their own chances in life by "becoming aware of those of all individuals in their circumstances." ● It is the capacity to shift from one perspective to another. -Through the use of Sociological Imagination, men & women hope to grasp "what is going on in the world" and understand "what is happening in themselves". -The best distinction made with Sociological Imagination is that between "personal troubles" and "public issues of social structures"

Globalization and Globalization Theories

-Globalization is the emergence of a world system that constitutes a single social order (the development of social and economic relationships that span globally) -Cultural differentiation - Cultures remain largely unaffected by globalization, assumption that there are lasting and inherent differences between cultures -Cultural hybridization - Integration of global and local culture, adopting elements of global culture to local -Cultural convergence - Cultural changes as a result of globalization, increase of sameness and global assimilation (but in the direction of dominant groups)

Phyllis Richman Letter

-In 1961, Phyllis Richman applied to Harvard University to study city and regional planning. -She was a married woman -In the letter Harvard says, "However — to speak directly — our experience, even with brilliant students, has been that married women find it difficult to carry out worthwhile careers in planning and hence tend to have some feeling of waste about the time and effort spent in professional education. (This is, of course, true of almost all graduate professional studies.)" -They then say "write us a page or two at your earliest convenience indicating specifically how you might plan to combine a professional life in city planning with your responsibilities to your husband and a possible future family?" -Extremely sexist reply from a prestigious institution - She replies 52 years later saying, "At the time, I didn't know how to begin writing the essay you requested. But now, two marriages, three children and a successful writing career allow me to, as you put it, 'speak directly' to the concerns in your letter," she wrote." - Belittles William A Doebele Jr and all who allowed him to write that letter in 1961.

Interpersonal, scientific, and cultural racism

-Interpersonal Racism: Racism that usually manifests in social interaction. Examples: calling someone a racial slur, microaggressions -Scientific Racism: Social Darwinism: Applying biological concepts such as natural selection and survival of the fittest to races. Arguing that some races are naturally superior or inferior to other races. · Eugenics: Practice of how to increase "superior" populations of a group and decrease "inferior" populations of a group. - Still exists today. Although defined by "genes" rather than "blood." Examples include "The Bell Curve" and chopstick use. -Cultural Racism: · Prejudices and discrimination based on perceived "cultural differences" between ethnic or racial groups. Example: Moynihan Report which blamed black people and black families for their own poverty.

Anomie

-Introduced by sociologist Émile Durkheim -Functionalist approach -Feeling adrift from society; Normlessness or social instability caused by the erosion or absence of morals, norms, standards, and values previously held in a society

"Deep Understanding" or Verstehen

-Introduced to sociology by Max Weber -The term refers to seeing the world as others see it, to the sort of rich valid data that might be acquired through participant observations or extensive unstructured interviews. -○ the aim of understanding the 'motives' of why people take certain actions." ○ empathetic understanding of human behavior ○ putting oneself in another's shoes

Alienation

-It was brought into sociological analysis by Karl Marx and used in the sense of the worker being alienated from capitalist society; in particular, as being alienated from the products of his or her own labor. ○ Describes the social alienation of people from aspects of their human nature → as consequence of living in a society of social classes. ○ Estranges a person from their humanity. ○ The worker loses the ability to determine life + destiny when deprived of the right to think of themselves as the directors of their own actions. -TGIF + Sunday Scaries - feelings of estrangement, anxiety, hostility, linked to one's job

Rosenhan's "On Being Sane"

-Labeling done by medical professionals (especially in reference to bipolar/schizophrenia) -"Pseudopatients" are often not recognized as "sane" in psychiatric hospitals because the environment they are in causes their otherwise normal behaviors to be labeled as behaviors of their particular diagnosis. For example, the constant writing that the participants would do to record their experiences in the hospital were attributed to be "an aspect of their psychological behavior," attributing the act with something more (340). In addition, pacing back and forth out of boredom was looked at as a sign of nervousness seen in the patient when it was actually driven by the plain environment they were living in driving them to continuously walk down the hall (340). These actions are very normal and would be seen in completely sane people, but their label of being schizophrenics caused nurses and doctors to associate their actions with their diagnosis. In addition, it may also be difficult to recognize the "sane" in the psychiatric hospitals because of the fear of not diagnosing an insane person who actually needed medical attention. - Stereotyping and labeling: Due to being in psychiatric care, the person is thought to be "insane". This labeling and stereotyping makes it hard for someone to be seen as well. -In the first part of the study, pseudopatients arranged an appointment at the hospital and pretended to be insane. These patients were admitted to the psychiatric ward and labelled as insane, this is an example of a type one error because they were being diagnosed incorrectly. -In the second part of the study, Nurses were told that pseudopatients would be trying to enter the hospital however this was a lie. Because nurses believed pseudopatients would enter the hospital, they failed to diagnose many patients that were really insane. A type two error was made because they failed to diagnose individuals.

Labeling theory

-Labeling theory is ascribing a behavior as deviant by society. This theory focuses on the reaction to the behavior by society. -Derives from symbolic interactionalism, ● Howard Becker (marijuana) ● Interactions give you a particular label (cancer patient's marijuana use in a legal state not deviant vs living in an illegal state and acquiring marijuana which is deviant -It is not the act of marijuana smoking that makes one deviant, but the way others react to marijuana smoking that makes it deviant

Oppressor Within

-Looking within ourselves to reflect on ways in which we unfairly mistreat others, sometimes unknowingly, particularly minority groups. We have to challenge that to move outside of it. - (Internalized oppression, formerly oppressed member begins oppressing his former group) Challenging the Oppressor Within · Challenging "controlling images" and their intersectional impacts o Controlling Images: Stereotypical representations that reinforce stereotypes · "To dehumanize an individual or group is to deny the harsh reality of their experiences" · Making choices to challenge oppressors rather than accepting it.

Foucalt's "Panopticon"

-Michel Foucault, was an outspoken critic of the panopticon. He argued the panopticon's ultimate goal is to induce in the inmates a state of conscious visibility. This assures the automatic functioning of power. To him, this form of incarceration is a "cruel, ingenious cage". -Constant surveillance - or the idea of constant surveillance - creates regulation in even the smallest details of everyday life. Foucault calls this a "discipline blockade". -Foucalt: Punishment focused on the body is now punishment focused on the soul -But also pervasive beyond the prison walls - awareness of surveillance changes behavior

Sweatshops

-Multiple violations of laws, doesn't pay minimum wage, health violations, chaotically fast work environment -A. sweatshop is the term coined to refer to a. working environment (usually a factory) in. which working conditions are inhumane

Nationality

-Nationality is more of where you are located not who you are. For example, in the United States there are many different cultures and races, but we are all mostly one nationality, which is being a United States Citizen. -Think of a survey question, what nation are you a citizen of

Gender Typing

-The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender. -Therefore, gender typing is how a child attributes his or herself with a gender. Whichever gender it is may be the same as the biological sex that the child was born with. -For example, a male child may attribute himself to the male gender by growing up and wanting to be the stereotypical man. Because of society, the child may play with trucks and avoid societally dictated "girly" toys when growing up.

Policing

-Negative consequences associated with breaking gender roles ● Huge amount of discretion → don't really have to justify it ○ Actors of the state apparatus ○ Do not have as much training + massively overfunded ● Police have the ability to stop - interrogate - search anyone and anywhere ○ Granting police officers such a broad discretion to investigate anyone for drug crimes → high risk of acting in a racially discriminatory matter. ○ Most sex laws are enacted at the state and municipal level + enforcement is largely in the hands of local police. ● Punitive surveillance → juvenile detention centers "Lopez Aguardo" ● Tone policing - telling black people they're too upset, too angry ● Social movements example ○ Transformative = abolish or defund police ○ Reformative = give them more training - Consensus policing - Functionalist sociologists see the police as coming from and working on behalf of the community that they police. - Conflict policing is a Marxist perspective and one that views the police not as a part of the community but as a hostile outside force.

Measurement of net worth (wealth)

-Net worth: The total assets minus total liabilities of an individual or a company. -Contributes to one's status and social position - Wealth: More important to understand inequality. More fixed, produces income and wealth, total stocks and assets. - Wealth = (Total Assets) - Debt

Hegemony

-Part of Marxist theory -Power or dominance one social group holds over another-more social power=maintaining power -Cultural hegemony is the domination of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class who manipulate the culture of that society — the beliefs and explanations, perceptions, values, and mores — so that the imposed, ruling-class worldview becomes the accepted cultural norm

Political economy

-Political economy is an interdisciplinary branch of the social sciences that focuses on the interrelationships among individuals, governments, and public policy. -The field of political economy is the study of how economic theories such as capitalism or communism play out in the real world. -Those who study political economy seek to understand how history, culture, and customs impact an economic system. -Political economy of the media: the power relations that shape the communication of information from the mass media to its public, can subtly or overtly reinforce stereotypes, can also spark resistance

Key Findings from Privilege

-Privilege: sense of self and a mode of interaction that is advantageous -3 lessons of privilege: 1) hierarchies are natural and can be treated like ladders, not ceilings 2)experiences matter 3)privilege means being at ease, no matter what the context -Ease of privilege - feeling comfortable in just about any social situation-displayed through interactions -Key takeaway: In embracing an open society and embodying privilege, elites have obscured the persistence of social closure in our world. upper class no longer passes on entitlement but cultivates privilege. 21st century America is increasingly open yet relentlessly unequal.

Layla Saad's Me and White Supremacy Takeaways

-Saad leads readers through a journey of understanding their white privilege and participation in white supremacy, so that they can stop (often unconsciously) inflicting damage on black, indigenous and people of color, and in turn, help other white people do better, too. -Methods to combat white supremacy

Mobility

-Social mobility refers to the ability to change positions within a social stratification system. When people improve or diminish their economic status in a way that affects social class, they experience social mobility.

Dramaturigical Theory

-Sociologist Erving Goffman developed the concept of dramaturgy -The idea that life is like a never-ending play in which people are actors. ... He believed that whatever we do, we are playing out some role on the stage of life -Social interaction is analyzed in terms of how people live their lives like actors performing on a stage

Controlling Images

-Stereotypical representations that reinforce stereotypes -Patricia Hill Collins: images that are designed to make racism, sexism, poverty, and other forms of social injustice appear to be natural, normal, and inevitable parts of everyday life

Symbolic Capital

-Symbolic capital can be referred to as the resources available to an individual on the basis of honor, prestige or recognition, and serves as value that one holds within a culture. A war hero, for example, may have symbolic capital in the context of running for political office. -The various forms of distinction and prestige acquired through cultural recognition

Symbolic Interactionism

-Symbolic interactionism is viewing society as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop views about the world, and communicate with one another. -Your experiences add subjective meanings to symbols and letters. For example, the word 'dog' is just a series of letters. Through your interactions with the letters 'dog', you see this as a furry, four-legged canine

Socialization

-The active and ongoing process of learning and internalizing the norms, beliefs, values, and ideologies of a given society, and learn to function as a member of that society. -However, socialization cannot explain everything about a person's development and personality. -Biology is also a very important component. It is a combination of biology and social interactions that makes us who we are. -Agents of socialization: institutions that can impress social norms (family, religion, peer groups, economic/legal systes) -Learning/internalizing object status, violence, toys, games, household structure, employment structure, etc

Hegemonic masculinity

-The condition in which men are dominant and privileged, and this dominance and privilege is invisible -From sociologist: Raewyn Connell o Legitimizes men's dominant position in society o Justifies the subordination of the common male population and women o Men's masculinity is judged off height, strength, emotion, occupation

Social Capital

-The networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively.

Rationalization

-The rationalization of society is a concept that was created by Max Weber. -Rationalization refers to the process by which modern society has increasingly become concerned with efficiency: achieving the maximum results with a minimum amount of effort. ● Rationalization: choosing the most efficient means to accomplish tasks. ○ In most cases, traditional ways have passed into history. ○ Rationalization has led to the dominance of the bottom line → calculating costs to produce the most gain. ○ Profit had become a god while people have become expendable ○ As the rationalization of society continues, it threatens to lock us in an iron cage of rationality.

Work (informal economy, unpaid work)

-What does hard work mean? Saturated in frames of who should be rewarded and what counts -The informal economy is transactions outside the space of employment, that is unregulated and taxed (direct exchange of goods & services). Alternatively, it is the diversified set of economic activities, enterprises, jobs, and workers that are not regulated or protected by the state. -Unpaid labor is defined as labor that does not receive any direct compensation. Other types of unpaid labor activities include volunteering as a form of charity work and interning as a form of unpaid employment.

Alternative Social Movements

-social movements that seek the most limited societal change and often target a narrow group of people -individual behavior

Redemptive Social Movements

-social movements that target specific groups but advocate for more radical change in behavior -spread of Christianity

Racial Formation Theory (Omi and Winant)

-the sociohistorical process by which racial identities are created, lived out, transformed, and destroyed -Omi and Winant see the role of race as embedded within all U.S. institutions and a powerful (although perhaps not always dominant) force driving categorization, separation, and political struggle. -Racial formation theory is an attempt to determine differences between people based on how they live rather than how they look. To develop the theory, sociologists looked at the formation of race from three perspectives: Race is not a clear distinction, and it has political undertones. How race is viewed changes due to era, group and individual - it cannot be defined with any stability. The concept also changes depending on the political system and belief. Views of race often come into conflict. Projects meant to improve race relations often have problems because people have different ideas regarding what constitutes race. Disparity of racial construct is not only institutional, it is based on individual interpretation and global differences. People in one region of the world (or country) do not share opinions regarding race.

Thomas Khun: "Normal science," "paradigms," "paradigm shift"

-· Thomas Khun and "Normal Science" Science is non-linear and non-continuous - Normal science: a science conducted within an existing paradigm, an established paradigm is normal science -Paradigms: the framework for how to "do" science - methods, standards of assessment, concepts, etc -Paradigm shifts or scientific revolutions change scientific consensus, and, therefore, change scientific facts

Cult of Domesticity

. 'Cult of domesticity' is a phrase used to describe the prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the nineteenth century in the United States and Great Britain. Cult of Domesticity ideology was thought to elevate the moral status of women and be beneficial for them in ways such as living lives of higher material comfort. It made the roles of wife and being a mother more important in society. Cult of Domesticity ideology discouraged women from obtaining an education. In the concept of cult of domesticity there is a belief as in sociology of family that individual life is most fulfilling when experienced in a private household where women are chief homemakers and caregivers. - The Cult of Domesticity identified the home as the "separate, proper sphere" for women, who were seen as better suited to parenting.

Affirmative Action Myths

1.) Affirmative action is preferential treatment/discriminatory. Fact: Affirmative action creates a fair competition by removing the barriers that obstruct the lanes of women and minorities in the race toward the american dream 2.) Affirmative action is no longer needed in America. Fact: Since exclusion and unfair treatment persist in America, we need remedies to deal with it 3.) Affirmative action rewards the unqualified. FACT: The real myth is that we have an equal playing field and that the most qualified people are the ones who get ahead. In fact, affirmative action helps to offset barriers that unfairly block the pathways of qualified Americans who are fully able to succeed. In so doing, it promotes equal opportunity. 4.) Opposing affirmative action is consistent with Dr. King's dream of a colorblind America. FACT: Dr. King and other civil rights leaders never believed that racial inequality could be fixed by ignoring the problem of racism 5.) Affirmative action targets many people who continue to face opportunity barriers including women, Native Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, South Asians, African Americans, Arab Americans,

Outsider Within

EX: Black women experience "outsider within", slave women taking care of rich white families and their children. The Black women get an intimate look at the lives of the white family, but they are never fully accepted by them. - Developed by sociologist Patricia Hill Collins - Specifically regarding black female intellectuals in her study, she says the outsider within status allows for the production of black feminist thought that reflects a special standpoint on self, family, and society.

Family Structure (Nuclear, Extended)

Family Structure: May be related by blood, marriage, or adoption. Consists of two or more people living in the same household. Nuclear family - Consists of two parents and their children. Most traditional type of family. (Exceptions: Parent-child relationship may be biological, step, half, adoptive etc.) (Parents are not necessarily married, but no other relatives or non-relatives live in the house) Extended family - Includes relatives other than parents or siblings (grandparents, uncles, cousins). Ex: Grandparents live with the family.

Theoretical Approaches to Religion

Religious Pluralism - present and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society - U.S. is both highly religious and highly pluralistic - Religious rate on par with some poor developing nations: 89% of Americans believe in God, 72% believe in heaven, 58% believe in hell - 37% think that the Bible is the literal word of God, 34% believe it is the non literal word of God, and 20% believe it is written by humans - Highly pluralistic: more than 280 denominations and 300,000 congregations exist - 77% of Americans claim a religious affiliation, though identifying with/as, believing, and participating mean quite different things (difficult to measure)

Cesare Lombardo on Deviance

Theory of Deviance- Cesar Lombardo and William Sheldon. -certain body types are more prone to deviance. -stereotype.

Key findings from Christakis and Fowler

o Connect weight gain between family members/friends o More likely to become obese if a friend/family member of the same sex becomes obese (as opposed to a member of the opposite sex) o Influence is based on geographic closeness o Less about imitation and more about the perception of social norms § Conformity o Obesity in a way is contagious § Health behaviors can spread in a similar way -By analyzing the Framingham data, Christakis and Fowler say, they have for the first time found some solid basis for a potentially powerful theory in epidemiology: that good behaviors — like quitting smoking or staying slender or being happy — pass from friend to friend almost as if they were contagious viruses

Grannovetter: "Strength of Weak Ties"

o Finding new jobs through acquaintances not friends o What does "the strength of weak ties" mean? § Networking - institutionalized forming of "weak ties" § Harder to leave strong ties - unable to integrate into new job setting (strong ties as your friends and your weak ties as your acquaintances) § Expanding circle to improve opportunities o What are the implications for inequality? § Inequality is not only physical (ex. Social capital) o Benefits extroverted people

Wage Gap

o Women earn a median of $900,000 less than men per year o Women make about 20% less than men o However you calculate the gap, it still exists o Especially includes women of color (gender and race) o Why do women earn less than men? § Demographics (age or background) § Smaller gap for younger workers § Female workers take on care giving responsibility in later life § Females accumulate fewer years of full time labor due to maternity leave § Women rival men in their investment in education and achievement (less of an explanatory factor these days) § Occupations dominated by men are often higher paid professions than those dominated by women § Jobs value full commitment to work and thus pay more (puts women at disadvantage) § Ex: Lilly Ledbetter story § Human capital theory · Refers to education, experience, and hours worked · According to this, women invest less in education and deserve less pay · Evidence for this theory is weak § Overt discrimination · People purposefully pay women less · Evidence is also weak · Difficult to prove § Gender segregation · Women select jobs that pay less and are "women jobs" · Evidence is strong § Devaluation for women's work · Even in demanding jobs, the roles filled by women are paid less · Ex: law and doctors § Harassment and hostile work environment · Unwanted touching, remarks, staring, invasion of personal space, pictures/posters that were offensive · Women who experienced 4+ were considered harassed and considered more likely to take lower paying jobs, leave their jobs, and interact with coworkers less

Approaches to gender: structural, functional, conflict, interactional, performativity, identity, cultural symbols

§ Gender is structural, embedded in institutions · The ideal abstract worker is male (no paid paternity leave) § Functional - Function of social order § Men will do physical tasks § Women will do emotional tasks - Conflict = Power relations (male is dominant, female is submissive) - Interactional - Gender is reinforced through societal interactions in which one comes off as male or female - Performative: Gender is accomplished through performance; situational. Individual's performance of gender is intended to construct gendered behavior as naturally occurring. Repetitive and stylized bodily acts are a means do "gendered selves" through the body (Butler 1990) - Identity: Gender is an identity · Cis gender: your biological sex aligns with your gender identity and expression · Transgender: doesn't have one definition; when a person's biological sex doesn't match with their biological gender identity o Ones gender is not monolithic (can be continuously changing/fluid) · We express gender everyday (speech, body language, expression) · Gender expression doesn't always match biological sex (DON'T ASSUME) · Gender identity doesn't determine sexual attraction - Cultural: How symbols are taken up by children § Barbie is interpreted different ways in different cultures § Can be both an idol for girls and a way to challenge the gender roles (with different occupations like doctor, soldier, etc)

Social networks (Egos, Nodes, Alters, Dyads, Triads, Groups)

· Both a theory and a method · Totally different "way of looking" than other theories. Not concerned with power, "culture," or "top down" or "bottom up" approaches — looks at quantitative structure and formation of a group -Egos: the central node of study -Nodes: the entities (people, organizations, institutions, etc) that connect with each other forming social groups -Alters: directly connected to the ego and can be egos in their won network groups § Ego networks interact to form larger networks -· Dyad: group of two (most common) o Most intimate form of life, mutually dependent on one another, must maintain relative symmetry o Pure dyads are voluntary o Ex. Marriage § Rates of divorce are higher with birth/death of child - changes dyad to triad -· Triad: group of three o More tenuous power relationships, triads can feature a "mediator," "tertius gaudens," or "divide et impera" § Mediator - resolve conflict § Tertius gaudens - "the third that rejoices" (benefit form conflict of others) § Divide et impera - intentionally drives wedge between others o One member can leave, and the group will remain o Potential for power struggle -· Groups > 3 o Small group: face to face interaction, a unifocal perspective, lack of formal arrangements or roles, certain level of equality § Ex. Study group o Party: similar to small group but multifocal § Ex. Study group that divides into different conversations o Large group: characterized by the presences of formal structure that mediates interaction and status differentiation § Ex. Classroom · Primary group: social groups composed of enduring and intimate face to face relationships that strongly influence attitudes and ideals of those involved o Ex. Family · Secondary group: marked my impersonal, instrumental relationship (means to an end) o Ex. Soccer team, labor union · In-group: majority o Ex. Heterosexuals · Out-group: stigmatized or less powerful group o LGBTQ+ community · Reference group: a group that helps us understand or make sense of our position in society relative to other groups

Conrad's Engines of Medicalization

· Conrad: what are the "engines" of medicalization? o Biotech - direct consumer advertising o Consumers o Pharmaceuticals

Emotional Work (Labor)

· Emotional Labor: the process of managing feelings and expressions to fulfill emotional requirements of a job o Hochschild showed how workers are expected to regulate emotions in Managed Heart - Emotional labor occurs when employees introduce or suppress emotions in order to portray themselves in a certain light that, in turn, produces a wanted state of mind in another.

Ethnicity

· Ethnicity is a socially constructed category that is defined by social and cultural traits. · Ethnicity is often tied to nationality. · Unlike race, ethnicity can be nonhierarchical and voluntarily defined.

Social Determinants of Health

· Important factors in health: nutrition, clean water, lifestyle choices, and social position · Privileged groups live longer and healthier lives, including married people (especially married men) o Culinary gentrification - what used to be "poor food" became healthy and therefore the cost increased so only the rich could afford it § Ex. quinoa · Whitehall Study (1967): Followed men for 10 years focused on class position and occupation o Lower status men had much higher risk of common illnesses and ailments (morbidity rates), and higher mortality (death) rates o Relation to stress - cortisol and coping mechanisms · Height o Genetics and environment o Interaction between bio and social · Socioeconomic status o People with higher incomes live longer § Cost of health insurance? Diet? o More educated people live longer § Smoke less, eat healthier, exercise more, have more information and skills navigating health care system. But did their better health contribute to their high ed attainment? · Which direction does this relationship occur from? o 3 main theories: § Selection theory · Causality § Drift explanation · Reverse causality · Poor health à low socioeconomic status § Social determinants theory · Psychosocial · Material access · Fundamental causes

Medicalization

· Medicalization: the process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as issues become framed as such - In a general sense, medicalization refers to how human conditions and behaviors are defined in medical terms, usually as an illness or disorder.

Race

· Race is a socially constructed category that is formulated based on physical traits, ancestry, or both. Race has no biological basis. · However, just because race is a social construct does not mean it does not matter. · Race is involuntarily defined. - Thus, race is inherently hierarchical, exclusive, and unequal.

Sick Role

· Talcott Parsons (1951) · Sick role: concept describing the social rights and obligations of a sick individual o Rights § Not perform normal social roles § Not be held accountable for one's condition · Often held partially accountable o Obligations § Try to get well § Seek competent help and comply with the doctor's orders · Differs based on status o Those who comply with obligations are not socially penalized if their condition does not improve

Surveillance and Technology

■ Surveillance in the body ● Physical → psychological ● Surveillance used to control people ● Dynamic normalization: eradicates free will and independent thinking ● Data is also under surveillance; monetized ■ Self-surveillance ex: eyebrows styles changing over time; fashion in Vogue or other fashion magazines and sources have influence over self-surveillance

Deviance

○ Deviance: "non-conformists", people who go against the norm ■ Deviate from morals or social norms, etc. ■ Not static; changes over time ● Ex) obesity ■ Can refer to individuals or groups ● Ex) cults ■ Practices ● Ex) tattoos, heterosexuality, nose rings ■ Place determines what is "deviant" ● Ex) college parties vs. family parties ■ A very broad term; can apply to almost anything ■ What constitutes as deviance can change over time just like how culture can change Howard Becker (marijuana) -Howard Becker's 1963 study of marijuana smokers suggests that "becoming" a marijuana smoker depended on one's acceptance into the subculture, close association with experienced users, and one's attitudes toward non-users

Conflict Theory

● Conflict perspective (Marx, Wright) ○ Inequality results from class conflict and blocked opportunity. ○ Reflects the class interests of the powerful, and is negative for society as a whole. ● Power relations, lacking ownership over products and the production process makes workers feel dehumanized ■ Inequality causes deviance ■ Protecting the bourgeois → violation of property rights ■ Racial minorities → more likely to be labeled as deviant

Embodied Social Movements (Key Concepts)

● Embodied Health Movement ○ What are the three-four components of EHM? ■ First have biological perspective ■ Second, identify challenges in practices and knowledge ■ Activists must collaborate with scientists and healthcare professionals in order to combat these issues

Functional Perspective (Gans)

● Inequality motivates people to fill different positions in society. ● Poor serve functions: create need for social services, do undesirable jobs, provide 'moral standard' for others. ● Sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability ● This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation + broadly focuses on the social structures that shape society as a whole. ● "Gender Inequalities" exist as an efficient way to create a division of labor. ○ Division of labor also works to maximize resources and efficiently ● Inequality motivates people to fill different positions in society. → Functionalist Theories of Stratification Interpretation ● The Poor serve functions: create need for social services, do undesirable jobs, provide 'moral standard' for others.

Private Troubles vs Public Issues

● Private troubles occur within the "character" of the person and the range of their immediate relations with others. ○ They have to do with one's "self" and the limited areas of one's social life that one is aware of. ○ The statement + resolution of these troubles are a biographical entity + the social setting that is directly open to personal experience and willful activity. ○ Troubles are private matters. -Public issues of the social structure: Have to do with matters that transcend these local environments and deal with the organization of the institutions of society as a whole ○ Issues are a public matter. (A "value" cherished by the public is threatened) ○ There are debates about what this "value" is - or what is threatening it. ○ Issues have the nature of not being defined in terms of immediate/everyday environments of ordinary people. ○ It often involves "a crisis in institutional arrangements" and it also involves "contradictions or antagonisms".