SOCI 205 Final

Formal Social Control: Crime and the Criminal Justice System

CRIME 1. Violent Crimes -Violent crimes are considered the most threatening, because they involve offenses against persons. 2. Property Offenses - Property offenses are nonviolent crimes, the most serious of which include burglary, larceny-theft, auto theft, and arson. 3. Public Order/Victimless Crimes - Ex: Prostitution, illegal gambling, and illegal drug use CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 1. Law Enforcement - Police officers are the most visible and most direct link between the criminal justice system and the public. They take primary responsibility for the enforcement of laws. The police have two important roles: to catch criminals and to maintain order with the hope of preventing crime. Although the media emphasize the crime fighter image of police work, police officers spend far more time in the second role. 2. The Courts - Although every criminal is entitled to his or her day in court, almost 90% of criminal cases never go to trial. Instead, prosecuting attorneys representing the state and defense attorneys representing the accused usually negotiate a plea bargain, whereby the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a specific charge. Even with only about 10% of cases going to trial, the criminal court dockets are crowded, and it may take a year or more for a case to go to trial. 3. Corrections - As the name implies, a correctional system represents society's attempt to correct those who have violated its laws. Corrections may be linked to rehabilitation and an effort to reform criminals, but most often they take the form of retribution, or punishment.

Conflict Perspective (Social Stratification)

Capitalism has proved to be far more resilient than Marx ever could have imagined. Marx's model of class conflict and his future projections were primarily based on family-owned companies and competitive capitalism which prevailed in the 19th century. Beginning in the 20th century, however, this system gave way to monopoly capitalism, in which large multinational corporations dominated various sectors of the economy. In the 21st century, with major advances in technology, communication, and transportation, multinationals are giving way to giant transnational corporations that search for profits all over the globe.

Races

Categories of people set apart from others because of socially defined physical characteristics

Underclass

Chronically unemployed, sometimes homeless and live in poverty

Conflict Theories (Social Change)

Class Warfare and Change: In Marx's model of revolutionary change, as capitalists bought off competitors, they would grow stronger and more ruthless in their search for profits, and workers would suffer progressively lower wages, higher rates of unemployment, and poverty and destitution. This, in turn, would produce rising levels of alienation, discontent, and severe economic crises-- each more serious than the last-- until in the end, workers everywhere would recognize their common enemy and join in a revolutionary movement to overthrow capitalists and the system of private property, ultimately taking charge of the economy and running it for the good of all.

Mixed Economy

Combines central elements of capitalism and socialism and allows private ownership and free enterprise to compete with businesses, industries, and services owned and operated by the state

Urban Legends

Complex popular tales that often contain implicit warnings and messages

Cybercrimes

Computer-related crimes conducted over the internet

Conflict View (Economy and Work)

Conflict theorists contend that most economic systems, especially capitalism, are driven by power, greed, unfair competition, and exploitation of the masses (workers who both produce and consume the goods and services) by the elites (who control the capital, own the means of production, and reap the profits from the labor and consumption of the masses). - Conflict theorists point out that although both the economic elite and the masses apparently benefit during economic booms, the disparities between corporate executives and workers at the bottom of the corporate ladder grow larger, not smaller.

Conspicuous Consumption

Consumers' desire to express their social standing by acquiring goods and services simply for the purposes of having, displaying, and consuming them

Social Control Theories

Contend that deviance is normal and conformity must be explained

Liberation Hypothesis

Contends that females traditionally have not committed as much crime, delinquency, and other forms of deviance because of the rigid gender roles and fewer opportunities afforded them.

Transnational Corporations

Corporations that own companies and search for profits all over the globe Ex: McDonald's, Coca-Cola, Nike, Ford, GM, Colgate-Palmolive, General Electric

Gender

Cultural understanding of what constitutes masculinity and femininity in a society

Genocide

Deliberate and systematic elimination of minority group members

Sexual Harrassment

Deliberate unwanted sexual gestures, comments, or actions that make an individual uncomfortable in her or his work environment

Conflict Approach- Dependency Theory and World System Theory (Global Stratification)

Dependency Theory: Maintains that rich industrialized nations keep poor countries from advancing through various dependency relationships 1. Trade Dependency (A continuation of colonialism) - Industrial nations perpetuate former colonial patterns by purchasing raw materials--- coffee, sugar, and minerals--- at the lowest possible prices and then processing them at home and selling the finished products back to developing nations at many times the cost of the agricultural produce or raw materials. 2. Industrial Dependency (The corporate search for advantage) - Corporations establish factories in the Southern Hemispheres to take advantage of cheap labor, gain access to local markets, gain tax advantages, and circumvent environmental and other government regulations in their home countries 3. Investment Dependency (Vicious cycles of credit and debt) - International financial institutions also contribute to dependency relations, since over half of the World Bank's lending capital is supplied by a handful of major industrial and postindustrial nations World System Theory: Maintains that all nations are part of a worldwide division of labor - This conflict approach was developed by economist Immanuel Wallerstein. He contends that since the 16th century, all nations have been part of a capitalist world economy. According to Wallerstein, just as some people have more wealth, power, and prestige than others, so do nations in international commerce and trade. Wallerstein categorizes nations into core nations, semiperiphery nations, and periphery nations.

Feminist Approach (Race and Ethnicity)

Due to multiple factors, women face numerous social inequalities to vary degrees. Simply being female potentially promotes an experience of oppression, but women experience discriminations differently due to their social inequalities, sex, gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, global location, and social class all contribute to differences in privilege.

Discrimination in Education

During the 1990s, there were many challenges to job training programs, school desegregation, and college affirmative action programs, as well as renewed debates about race and intelligence. In this period, Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray (1994) published a national bestseller, The Bell Curve, which used charts, tables, and other data to "prove" that "blacks" tested lower than "whites" on IQ tests. Most scholars who reviewed this "evidence" however, found "almost no support for genetic explanations of the IQ difference between blacks and whites".

Global Cities

Emerging focal points of world finance, trade, and communication, which have made them more prosperous and more socially diverse than other cities-- both past and present. Ex: Miami, New York City, Los Angeles, London, Paris, Tokyo, Zurich, Hong Kong

Shadow Economy or (underground economy)

Exchange of goods and services and generation of income that go unrepeated to the government

Feminist View (Economy and Work)

Feminist sociologists focus on the gendered nature of work and how traditional gender roles have limited employment opportunities for women in the United States and around the globe. Feminist theorists point out the inequities in training, employment opportunities, salaries, career advancement, and unemployment rates between women and men.

Feminist Theories of Deviance

Feminist theories of deviance differ from traditional explanations in five important ways: 1. Gender is a social and cultural creation and is not simply a difference between the sexes 2. Gender helps to order social life and social institutions 3. Gender constructs of masculinity and femininity are linked to men's economic, political, and social dominance over women 4. Knowledge is gendered, reflecting men's views of the natural and social world 5. Females should be at the center of the sociological inquiries of deviance and not merely a subcategory Traditionally, females have been linked to nonviolent deviant behaviors such as running away from home, shoplifting, drug use and abuse, prostitution, and other more stereotypical behaviors associated with the feminine roles.

Feminist Perspective (Social Stratification)

Feminists emphasize that the feminization of poverty and the disproportionate numbers of female-headed households living in poverty reflect the long-established and firmly entrenched patriarchal aspects of social structure. In the case of social stratification and social class, it typically has been the father and husband's educational level, occupation, income, wealth, and prestige that have determined a family's socioeconomic status and opportunities for social mobility.

Feminist Approach (Global Stratification)

Feminists point out that despite major gains in education in rich and poor countries alike, women's labor force participation worldwide is only about 40%. Nevertheless, women and girls are responsible for 2/3 of hours worked-- much of it in farm labor and unwaged, domestic work and community activities. For their efforts, women and girls receive an estimated 10% of the world's income and an even smaller share of the world's assets. Worldwide, the average wage for women is about 3/4 the male wage.

Conflict Approach (Race and Ethnicity)

From the conflict perspective, the basic source of prejudice and discrimination is competition among racial and ethnic groups for scarce resources. Marxist scholars contend that in contemporary society, prejudice, and discrimination persist because they serve the economic interests of the capitalist elite.

Conflict View- Gender Stratification (Sex and Gender)

From the conflict perspective, the persistence of traditional gender roles that place women in socially inferior positions is another form of social stratification. 1. Gender and the Economy - Friedrich Engels contended that initially, despite their distinctive roles, men and women shared more equally in the economic survival of the family and thus experienced more egalitarianism. It was not until the emphasis shifted to owning and exchanging goods and property. Engles, argued, that men began to enjoy an advantage over women. Almost immediately, men defined themselves as the primary producers of goods and women as secondary, being the consumers. From the conflict perspective, this phenomenon increased with capitalism and the emergence of industrialized societies.

Functionalist Approach (Race and Ethnicity)

Functionalists point out that placing people into racial and ethnic categories can be both functional and dysfunctional. Functionalists are also interested in the relationship between prejudice and discrimination, which is often complex. Robert Merton (1949,1976) identified four major ways in which prejudice and discrimination can be combined, based on functionality or dysfunctionality: 1. Unprejudiced Nondiscriminators (all-weather liberals) - Adhere to the American ideal of equal opportunity for all and neither are prejudiced nor discriminate against others. Whatever the situation, they abide by their beliefs. 2. Unprejudiced Discriminators (fair-weather liberals) - Are free of prejudice, but when it is expedient, profitable, or otherwise seems justifiable, they may discriminate against others. 3. Prejudiced Nondiscriminators (fair-weather bigots) - Do not believe in equality of opportunity and hold many prejudices toward racial and ethnic groups, but they do not discriminate, because they fear the consequences. 4. Prejudiced Discriminators (all-weather bigots) - Are unashamed bigots who do not believe in equality of opportunity-- at least for certain groups-- and discriminate against racial and ethnic minorities freely.

Informal Social Control

Gossip, for instance, is a very effective means of penalizing behavior. Ridicule, or shame, is another common and effective method of informal social control. Informal social control can be very powerful, and is often all that is necessary to dissuade deviance and encourage conformity. With today's emphasis on media and technology, social media have become powerful agents of social control, where people can be publicly shamed and ridiculed almost instantaneously for appearance, thoughts, ideas, or behaviors. When formal norms are violated, however, informal social control may be supplemented and reinforced by formal controls.

Five Techniques of Neutralization

Gresham Skyes and David Matza (1957) theorized that much deviant behavior can be explained by people's ability to rationalize it and hence neutralize their inhibitions. 1. Denial of Responsibility - People may rationalize deviant acts by claiming they were caused by forces beyond their control. 2. Denial of Injury - If a person cannot deny responsibility for a deviant act, he or she may argue that no harm was done. 3. Denial of the Victim - When somebody is hurt and harm cannot be denied, the deviant may rationalize that the victim deserved to be hurt. 4. Condemnation of the Condemners - A common assertion by many deviants is that those who condemn them are even more worthy of condemnation. 5. Appeal to Higher Loyalties - Many forms of deviance can be rationalized as altruistic acts for the good of a particular group or for some higher cause.

Interactionist Perspective (Social Stratification)

Harold Kerbo (2011) maintains that first, middle-class patterns of socializing often reflect high geographic and social mobility and the absence of kin. By contrast, many in the working class remain in the communities where they were born, and this allows them to maintain contact with kin. Middle-class people have more education and wealth and much more leisure to expand their horizons and participate in community activities. Likewise, their occupations are far less likely to produce alienation and feelings of powerlessness than do working-class jobs. Social class promotes a multitude of other lifestyle differences, including food preferences, sexual practices, musical and artistic interests, dating patterns, sleeping arrangements, and almost everything else.

Core Nations

Highly industrialized nations that are headquarters for the world's major corporations and banks. - United States, Japan

Corporate Conglomerates

Huge corporations that produce hundreds of different products under a variety of trade and brand names

Social Races

In the United States and globally, where groups selectively identify physical traits such as skin color, hair texture, and other incidental biological traits and transform them into significant symbols of purported racial differences. Social races may seem to be about biology, but they are in fact pseudobiological classification systems.

Transsexual

Individuals who have undergone surgery to change their biological sex

Transgender

Individuals whose gender identity differs from the sex of their birth

Cisgender

Individuals whose gender identity matches their sex at birth

Interactionist Approach (Social Change)

Interactionists tend to view change as being a result of ideas and the process of redefining meaning and reality through social interaction.

Secondary Labor Market

Jobs that provide low wages and few benefits

Corporations

Large business concerns owned by thousands of stockholders and managed by boards of directors

Collectivities

Large numbers of people who interact briefly and superficially in the absence of clearly defined norms

Mass

Large numbers of people widely dispersed

Structural Mobility

Large-scale changes in occupational, educational, and corporate social structures that enable people to move up or down in the stratification system

Social Change (Macro-change)

Macro-changes are gradual, large scale, and, because they take place over long periods of time, imperceptible to people as they go about their daily lives

Convergence Theory (Collective Behavior)

Maintains that mobs are compromised not of ordinary citizens caught in the grip of powerful emotions, but of segments of the population who already share certain attitudes and interests that predispose them to converge and act in violent and destructive ways.

Social Control

Mechanisms people use to enforce prevailing social norms

Sexism in the Family

Men have traditionally taken an instrumental role in the family, assuming primary responsibility for economic support and contact with the rest of society, while women have been relegated to an expressive role based on providing love, nurturing, emotional support, and maintenance of the home. 1. Working the Second Shift - Instead, the primary responsibility for daytime child care has been turned over to babysitters and preschools; in the evening, children and housework largely remain the mother's responsibility. Arlie Hochschild and Anne Machung (1990) referred to women's return to the home after a full day of work as the beginning of the "second shift"-- another full-time job of wife and mother. 2. Passing Sexism on the Next Generation - Since the family is the initial agent of socialization, gender roles and identities are first learned within the family context. Through imitation, role modeling, and intentional as well as inadverent socialization most families perpetuate and reinforce the traditional gender roles of their culture.

Social Change (Micro-change)

Micro-changes involve small, rapid changes, produced by the countless decisions people make as they interact with others in the course of their daily lives

Legal Discrimination

Minority group members are denied lawful access to public institutions, jobs, housing, and social rewards

Functionalist Approach- Modernization Theory (Global Stratification)

Modernization Theory: Recognizes global development as a process in which advanced industrial nations and technology help poor nations advance - Many poor nations were held back by political corruption and "warlords" who wasted money and drained wealth from the business sector. Some modernization theorists also blamed traditional customs and institutions for the slow progress of many poor nations. Contemporary modernization theorists reject many of these views. Modernization produces a shift in values to those that are increasingly rational. However, Western and American values are not the only path to global development. Studies have shown that under some circumstance-- as in the Pacific Rim--- traditional values, such as paternalistic management, authoritarian rule, and an emphasis on the group, may boost rather than retard economic progress. Subsequent studies maintain that modernization depends on a variety of factors, both internal and external. In addition to national efforts to industrialize in the Pacific Rim, the United States and Britain have exerted key roles in modernization by shifting huge amounts of capital and arms to South Korea, Taiwan, and other allies in the area.

Discrimination in Sports

More than 3/4 of NBA players (76.3%) and nearly 2/3 of NFL players (66.3%) are black, while MLB has the fewest black players, at just 8.3%. Latinos have a strong presence in MLB (28.2%) and MLS (24.1%). Moreover, black and other minority group superstars, such as Floyd Mayweather, LeBron James, Larry Fitzgerald, and Kevin Durant, are among the highest-paid athletes in the world, and make millions more in product endorsements. But believing that American sports are free of racism and prejudice is further evidence of the sociological principle that things are not what they seem.

Contagion Theory (Collective Behavior)

Most early scientific approaches to collective behavior focused on crowd psychology. For example, Gustav LeBon's (1895,1960) contagion theory stressed powerful and contagious emotions, which when combined with the anonymity of the crowd, enabled people to act irresponsibly or even brutally.

Voluntary (or Internalized) Social Control

Most people voluntarily conform most of the time. What psychologists refer to as conscience represents the sense of guilt we feel when we violate or even consider breaking social norms. Sociologists take this reasoning a bit further, explaining that we not only take into account the norms, values, and beliefs of others, but that we also anticipate social reactions to our acts before we commit them.

Global Stratification System

Nations are ranked in a hierarchy on the basis of their access to the world's wealth, power, and prestige

Periphery Nations

Nations at the very edge of the world economy; since they have very little to offer, they get the least. - Ethiopia, Afghanistan

Semiperiphery Nations

Nations that are moving toward industrialization and a diversified economy that have mid-level participation in the world economy, and they benefit accordingly. - Saudi Arabia, Brazil

Middle Income Nations

Nations that are newly industrialized and have moderate wealth and living standards Ex: Paraguay, Botswana, Gabon, Egypt, Turkmenistan, Maldives, Mongolia, Singapore, Indonesia, Samoa

Low Income Nations

Nations that are poor and agrarian and benefit least from their participation in the global economy Ex: Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Mozambique

High Income Nations

Nations with advanced industrial economies and high living standards Ex: Canada, United States, Switzerland, Germany, Netherlands, Denmark, Australia, New Zealand

Value-Added Theory (Collective Behavior)

Neil J. Smelser's (1962) value-added theory requires not only an understanding of crowd dynamics but also an examination of the larger social context in which collective behavior occurs. According to Smelser's model, several conditions increase the likelihood of collective behavior: 1. Structural Conduciveness - Where institutions are organized in such a way that they encourage collective behavior 2. Social Control Factors - Either government inactivity, confusion, and vacillation or active encouragement by elites may boost collective behavior 3. Structural Strains - Which include any social condition that strains social relations, such as poverty, injustice, discrimination, and economic uncertainty 4. Generalized Beliefs - About their situation that define the nature of the problem, identify who is responsible for it, and offer some plan of action 5. Mobilization for Action - Which usually occurs when leaders emerge and mobilize curious or sympathetic observers into active participants

Feminist Approach (Social Change)

Not surprisingly, feminists view social change from a gendered perspective. The central question posed by most feminist sociologists is why, despite such monumental social change both in the United States and worldwide, patriarchy persists in so many social arenas.

Primary Labor Market

Occupations that provide high income, prestige, and extensive benefits to workers

Life Chances

Opportunities for securing such things as health, education, autonomy, leisure, and a long life.

Social Movements

Organized, goal-directed efforts by a large number of people to promote or resist change outside of established institutions

Mass Behavior

People are not in the same locality, yet through a common source of information or communication medium they can indirectly influence one another

Segregation

Physical or social exclusion of minority groups from dominant group activities

Prejudice

Preconceived judgements about a category of people

Third World Nations

Preindustrial and poor Ex: Asia, Africa, and Latin America

Discrimination in the Criminal Justice System

Racial bias can be detected at every level of the criminal justice system.

Caste System

Ranking in hereditary and permanent, and marriage between members of different categories is prohibited.

Fashions

Relatively enduring styles and behaviors that enjoy widespread popularity, often in cycles

Collective Behavior

Relatively spontaneous and noninstitutionalized responses by a large number of people to uncertain and problematic situations

Differential Reinforcement (Ronald Akers)

Ronald Akers (2011), pointed out that depending on whom an individual associates with, norm-violating behavior may be either positively rewarded or negatively sanctioned.

Sexting

Sending nude photos of oneself via cell phone or other mobile device

Fads

Short-term, frivolous, and unconventional collective behaviors that usually provide pleasure and involve only a small segment of the population

Corporate Interlocks

Situations that occur when directors sit on more than one major corporate board, linking the corporations in ownership, management, and political and economic activities

Second World Nations

Socialist and communist nations, moderate levels of industrial growth and living standards Ex: Former Soviet Union and China

Deterrence Theory

States that deviance will be deterred if negative social sanctions (especially punishment) are perceived to be certain, swift, and severe

Stereotypes

Static and oversimplified ideas about a group or a social category

Ethnicity

Statuses based on cultural heritage and shared "feelings of peoplehood"

Functionalist Perspective (Social Stratification)

-Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945) argued that inequality is not created by natural differences but by the needs of society. Adopting the functionalist perspective, they argued that some positions are more important to social well-being and require longer training and greater skills. To their thinking, it is through a differential reward structure that all societies motivate people to defer gratification and spend many years in training or at work. - Herbert Gans (1971, 1994) offers an alternative approach within functionalism. He asks whether it is possible that poverty is in some way socially beneficial. Gans argues that poverty may be functional and beneficial-- not for society, but for certain segments of society. He contends that poverty is very functional for those who make their living assisting the poor, such as public health workers, social workers, and many people in the government.

Cyclical Approaches (Social Change)

1. Classical Cyclical Theories - Early scientists and historians rejected these ideas, although some borrowed biological metaphors that held that societies have their own inherent life spans and that each is born, matures, and then experiences decay and death. They, in turn, are replaced by societies in their youth and prime. 2. Contemporary Cyclical Approaches - Cyclical understandings of change have experienced something of a revival among New Age groups, as well as in popular expressions such as everything that goes around comes around.

Functionalist Theories (Social Change)

1. Classical Evolutionary Models - Borrowing models from the biological sciences, which had gained great prestige in the 19th century, many sociologists subscribed to the popular theory called unilineal evolution, which held that all forms of life-- and, by analogy, all societies-- progressed from simple to complex forms, with each form an advance over its predecessors 2. Neoevolutionary Perspectives - Current neoevolutionary theories, for example, acknowledge that societies differ according to levels of social complexity and that over time, there has been a general trend toward social differentiation, in which various social institutions (economic, religious, political, and others) have become separate and distinct from one another

Four Major Types of Stratification

1. Slavery - Existed in many early agrarian civilizations, including Greece and Rome, and for centuries flourished in such disparate political economies as the United States, Korea, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. Slavery persists in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. 2. Castes - When Portuguese explorers arrived in India in the 15th century, they were struck by the fact that categories of people could not intermarry. In traditional India, there were four major castes, or "Varna": Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and royalty), Vaisyas (merchants), and Sudras (peasants and craftsworkers) 3. Estates - In Europe, feudalism, or the estate system was born of the violent dissolution of the Roman Empire. 4. Social Classes - Class systems are more open to social mobility than are caste or estate systems, and boundaries between social strata are less clear

Determinants of Social Class Ranking

1. Wealth - Weber believed that differences in wealth lead to the formation of classes, which have similar lifestyles, or ways in which their members consume goods and express their social worth. 2. Power - Sociologists differentiate between personal power-- the ability to make decisions that affect one's life-- and social power-- the ability to make decisions that affect one's life--- and social power--- the ability to make decisions that affect the lives of others. Like wealth, power is unequally shared. Those who take a pluralist perspective maintain that classes and interest groups vote in their own interests and sometimes vote against others to keep them from dominating the political process. 3. Prestige - In every society, some categories of people are regarded as deserving more respect and honor than others because of ascribed statuses (e.g. race, sex, ethnicity), achieved statuses (e.g., occupation and marital status), possessions, or personal qualities (e.g., holiness, intelligence). In the United States, such things as material possessions, education, family background, and occupation have a major impact on everyone's class ranking. 4. Socioeconomic Status - Over the years, sociologists have used three major methods to identify social classes. One of the earliest used was the reputational method, which asked selected members of a group to socially rank people in their community. The subjective method asks people to locate themselves in the class system. The objective method assigns individuals to social classes on the basis of more objective measures.

Androgyny

A blending of masculine and feminine attributes

Ethnic Group

A category of people set apart from others because of distinctive customs and lifestyles

Minority Group

A category of people who are set apart for unequal treatment because of physical or cultural characteristics. - While there are many kinds of minorities, including religious groups, people with disabilities, the elderly, and others, race and ethnicity are particularly important minority statuses. Sociologists have identified five basic qualities of racial and ethnic minority groups: 1. Identifiability 2. Membership based on ascription 3. Group awareness 4. Differential power 5. Differential and unequal treatment

Social Inequality

A condition in which people have unequal access to wealth, power, and prestige.

Social Stratification

A form of inequality in which categories of people are systematically ranked in a hierarchy on the basis of their access to scarce but valued resources.

Crowd

A large number of people in close enough proximity to interact and influence one another's behavior

Wealth

A person's or family's total economic assets

Biological Race

A population that differs from others in the frequency of certain hereditary traits

Assimilation

A process in which minority groups lose their distinctive identities and conform to cultural patterns of the dominant group. - Milton Gordon (1978) identified three major variants of assimilation: 1. Cultural Assimilation - In which a minority is encouraged or required to adopt the host group's culture 2. Structural Assimilation - In which members of the minority group are encouraged or required to participate in the dominant group's social organizations, schools, and churches 3. Marital Assimilation - In which the minority is encouraged or permitted to marry members of the dominant group

Social Diffrentiation

A process in which people are set apart for differential treatment by virtue of their statuses, roles, and other social characteristics.

Social Change

A process through which patterns of social behavior, social relationships, social institutions, and systems of stratification are altered over time

Modernization

A process through which societies become more internally differentiated and complex as they move from simple to complex social institutions

Socioeconomic Status

A ranking that combines income, occupational prestige, level of education, and neighborhood to assess people's positions in the stratification system.

Culture of Poverty

A set of norms, beliefs, values, and attributes that trap a small number of the urban poor in a permanent cycle of poverty

Estate System

A social hierarchy centered on the monopoly of power and ownership of land by a group of religious and political elites.

Slave System

A society with two distinct strata-- a category of people who are free and a category of people who are legally the property of others.

Patriarchy

A system in which males dominate females in most spheres of life (politics, economics, family, and so on)

Matriarchy

A system in which women dominate men politically, economically, and socially

Scapegoat

A weak, conveinent, and socially approved target. - To social psychologists, unsatisfied expectations and desires are fertile ground for prejudice and discrimination. According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, people are goal-directed and when their desires are blocked, they become angry and frustrated and seek to find outlets for their hostilities. If people cannot pinpoint the source of their problems, or if they discover the source is too powerful to challenge, they may direct their anger at a scapegoat.

Profession

A white-collar occupation that is prestigious, is relatively high-paying, and requires advanced formal education and specialized training

Wealth and Income in the United States

According to economic data, a tiny segment of the American populations owns most of the nation's wealth. The wealthiest 1% of Americans own more than the least affluent 90%. U.S. Households Median Income by Quintile (2017) 1st Quintile- less than or equal to $22,800 2nd Quintile- $22,800-$43,511 3rd Quintile- $43,511-$72,001 4th Quintile- $72,001-$112,262 5th Quintile- $112,262

Emergent Norm Theory (Collective Behavior)

According to emergent norm theory, in situations where collectivities become crowds, people neither are overwhelmed by emotions nor are simply imitating each other. Instead, they look to each other during interaction for clues as to how they should behave and establish new or emergent group norms of judgement.

Relative Deprivation Theory (Social Movement)

According to relative deprivation theory, social movements appear when people feel deprived relative to others or the way life was in the past

Gender Identity

Acknowledging one's sex and internalizing the norms, values, and behaviors of the accompanying gender expectations

Affirmative Action

Action or policy favoring those who historically have been the targets of discrimination, especially in relation to employment or education

First World Nations

Advanced industrial, democratic, and rich nations Ex: United States, France, Japan

Discrimination in Housing

Although five decades have passed since the passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which banned discrimination in housing, many minorities remain in segregated neighborhoods across the nation.

Interactionist Approach (Global Stratification)

Although symbolic interactionism focuses on micro-level sociology and global stratification is a macro-level topic, this does not mean that interactionism has nothing to tell us about global inequality. Symbolic interactionists contend that this language and these labels are extremely important in shaping how we view and treat global inequality. Symbolic interactionists also remind us that relative deprivation may be just as powerful as, if not more devastating than, absolute deprivation, so that people living in poverty in a wealthy nation may suffer as much as, if not more than, poor people in an impoverished country. Although death is death, dying from malnutrition in a poor nation is easier to understand than somebody dying from the same malady in a nation such as the United States where, some would argue, each day enough food is thrown away and wasted to feed every man, woman, and child in the country.

Colonialism

An economic and political system in which powerful notions dominate and exploit weaker ones in trade and other relations

Split-Labor Market

An economic situation in which two groups of workers are willing to do the same work for different wages

Socialism

An economic system in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the state, and goods and services are distributed as a cooperative enterprise without regard to personal profit

Capitalism

An economic system in which the means of production are privately owned, and goods and services are distributed competitively for profit

Feminism

An ideology aimed at eliminating patriarchy in support of equality between the sexes

Pink-Collar Occupation

An occupation heavily dominated by women

Blue-Collar Occupation

An occupation that involves manual labor or factory work

White-Collar Occupation

An occupation that involves office work or nonmanual labor

Personal Discrimination

Attacks on minority group members, from social slights and insults to murder

Femininity

Attributes considered appropriate for females

Masculinity

Attributes considered appropriate for males

Double Jeopardy

Being disadvantaged or stigmatized because of more than one social characteristic

Racism

Beliefs and attitudes that one racial category is inherently superior or inferior to another. - Typically racist beliefs include the notion that minorities are "inferior" because of physical and social traits that are perceived to be intrinsic to those minority groups. Racism is more than attitudes, however; it involves differential power as well. Some scholars contend that "white" power and privilege are maintained by a majority belief that whites as a people do not have a race and that racial identity (with its associated penalties is something others have).

Sex

Biological and physical differences between females and males

Technology and the Global Digital Divide

By the 21st century, around 5% of the world's population had internet access, but more than 60% of the online population was in North America alone. Or, put another way, while developing countries accounted for 85% of the world's population, they had only 20% of internet users.

Interactionist Approach- Socialization and Gender Identity (Sex and Gender)

Symbolic interactionists assert that a person's sense of identity develops through social interaction and socialization. 1. Gender and Communication - Because boys and girls are socialized differently from birth, they learn to think and converse in different social worlds. It is common for men and women to share the same event or to be engaged in conversations with one another and yet come away with dramatically different interpretations. 2. Gender and Play - Girls' games generally involve pairs or small groups and encourage collaborative, cooperative interaction that focuses on communication and understanding and what might be called cooperative play. Boys' play tends to involve large groups and to emphasize competition, winning, territoriality, accomplishing clear-cut goals, and what is referred to as parallel play. 3. Gender and Social Learning Theory - Social learning theory contends that gender identity develops through the process of imitation and is reinforced by rewards and punishments for particular behaviors. 4. Gender and the Looking-Glass Self - Charles Horton Cooley's concept of the looking-glass self recognizes the cognitive processes by which individuals use society as a mirror to reflect their self-image: individuals project a gender image to society, which is then reflected back to them as being appropriately masculine or feminine 5. Gender Identity and Role Taking - George Herbert Mead (1934) asserted that a sense of self follows a progression through the imitative, game, and role-taking steps

Interactionist View (Economy and Work)

Symbolic interactionists contend that work is simply another form of social interaction--- thus, likely any other form of interaction, it helps shape, define, and give meaning to our social worlds and ourselves. - Worker satisfaction is perhaps the ripest area for symbolic interactionist analysis

Symbolic Interactionist Approach (Race and Ethnicity)

Symbolic interactionists insist that racial classification systems are much more than simple ordering devices; they also affect our perceptions of reality

Discrimination in the Workplace and Economically

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 dramatically altered historic patterns of discrimination. Not only did it prohibit racial and ethnic discrimination in the workplace; it also mandated that the government take affirmative action to ensure "equality of employment opportunity". A comparison of the net worth of whites and African Americans however, shows that even with these gains, a sizeable economic gap remains between whites, and most other minorities. Income statistics reveal similar racial disparities: African Americans earn roughly 67% of white incomes.

Power

The ability to realize one's will, even against resistance and the opposition of others.

Distribution

The allocation of goods and services to societal members

Lifestyles

The distinctive ways in which group members consume goods and services and display rank.

Class System

The economic factor and achieved statuses (gained by ability and merit) are the principal means of ranking.

Feminist View- Standpoint Theory (Sex and Gender)

The feminist approach aligns closely with the conflict perspective in explaining gender differences. Feminists contend that gender inequality is rooted in the structure of society and represents social stratification on the basis of sex and gender roles. While feminists acknowledge the economic links to gender stratification, their focus is more on differential power between the sexes and how they interpret social experiences differently. Men have created and perpetuated the idea that they are superior to women. This idea has created a sexist ideology that reinforces gender inequality and limits both social opportunities and outcomes for women. Feminists argue that the differences between women and men are rooted not in biology, but in sexist ideology and how it translates into social reality.

Functionalist View- Gender Complementarity (Sex and Gender)

The functionalist perspective may explain some of the gender stratification in traditional preindustrial societies. It falls short, however, of explaining why differences persist in highly technological industrial and post industrial societies. 1. Gender Roles as a Division of Labor - Functionalists note that women face some physical limitations during pregnancy and, unlike men, are biologically equipped to nourish infants, so it is pragmatic for women to take primary responsibility for the care of young children. 2. Functionalists and the Nature vs. Nurture Debate - Contemporary functionalists contend that biology may play a more important role than was previously acknowledged.

Functionalist View (Economy and Work)

The functionalist view focuses on the structure of the economic system and its manifest (production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services) and latent (maintenance of social classes) functions. - From the functionalist perspective, a strong economy contributes to the overall functioning of society and its other interdependent institutions, such as the family, education, religion, and government. Conversely, economic problems, such as runaway inflation, recession, or depression and high rates of unemployment are dysfunctional and have negative consequences for virtually all other aspects of society.

Sexism

The ideology that one sex is inherently superior or inferior to the other

Economic System

The ideology, values, norms, and activities that regulate an economy

Social Mobility

The movement of people from one social position to another in the stratification system.

Intersectionality

The overlap among various forms of inequality and oppression

Production

The process by which goods and services are brought into existence

Consumption

The process of accumulating and using goods and services

White Hate Groups

The reemergence of white hate groups and their blatant attacks on minority groups are perhaps the strongest evidence of deteriorating race relations. During the early 1990s, the number of hate groups increased from 273 to 346 in the United States, with perhaps as many as 30,000 hardcore members.

Prestige

The respect and admiration people attach to various social positions.

Gender Roles

The social and cultural expectations associated with a person's sex

Economy

The systematic production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in a society

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to evaluate the customs of others according to one's own cultural standards

Cyberterrorism

The use of the Internet by terrorists

Sexism in Religion

Through scientific research disputes such beliefs, in many cultures it is believed that males are spiritually superior to females, who often are thought to be weak, untrustworthy, and dangerous. Further, the majority of religions connect male-dominated rituals and spiritual myths with the political, economic, and social supremacy of men. 1. Patriarchal Beliefs - In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the ideology of male superiority begins with the story of Genesis, in which God referred to as "He", and we are told that man was created in his image. Woman, on the other hand, was made from man and, we are told, tempted man to succumb to evil, hence bringing about the fall from grace and the expulsion from the Garden of Eden.

Global Stratification and the Mass Media

Today, fewer than ten telecommunication firms, including Time Warner (CNN), News Corporation, Disney, and a few other communication giants, control much of the information and entertainment that global audiences receive.

American Social Classes

Today, sociologists often identify 5 major class groupings in the United States, all with very different life chances and lifestyles. 1. The Upper Class - The upper class constitutes around 5% of the population, but accounts for more than 22% of total income. 2. Upper Middle Class - The upper middle class, which constitutes about 15% of the population, includes corporate executives, physicians, attorneys, white-collar management, and professional employees. 3. Lower Middle Class - A large and diverse middle class (33% of the population) occupies the next rung on the social ladder. (Teachers, bank employees, mid-level supervisors, and salespeople) 4. Working Class - The working class (30% of the population) includes both blue-collar and clerical workers who work for low wages in unpleasant and sometimes dangerous environments, usually under close supervision. (Truck drivers, machine operators, laborers, and service and factory workers, whose household incomes tend to be less than $50,000 per year, are all members of the working-class) 5. Lower Class - The lower class includes the "poor", who constitute about 14% of the population. If all people who lose their jobs and enter the ranks of the poor in any given year are counted, however, the figure is probably closer to 20%.

Hirschi's Social Bond Theory

Travis Hirschi (1969), concluded that the main reason why some people do not commit deviance is that they have developed a strong social bond, consisting of an attachment to parents, school, church, and other institutions aligned with conformity; a commitment to conventional norms; an involvement in conventional activities; and a belief in the validity of social norms.

Rumors

Unconfirmed items or media reports that spread by word of mouth and cannot be verified

Institutional Discrimination

Unequal treatment of a group that is deeply embedded in social institutions

Discrimination

Unequal treatment of people because of their group membership

Cyberfeminism

Use of internet technology and cyberspace to promote feminism

Containment Theory (Walter Reckless)

Walter Reckless (1961), contended that during the socialization process, individuals develop the first barrier against deviance, which he called inner containment. Inner containment is the extent to which an individual internalizes the norms, attitudes, values, and beliefs of his or her culture. For some, however, inner containment is not strong enough, so society provides a second layer of control in the form of outer containment, which consists of parents, teachers, police officers, and others who serve as agents of social control.

Absolute Poverty

When people fall below a minimum subsistence level and are unable to function as members of society

Cultural Pluralism

When racial and ethnic groups cooperate while still remaining their distinctive identities and lifestyles

Mass Hysteria

Widespread anxiety and the frantic reactions of large numbers of people to some perceived threat

Feminization of Poverty

Women and girls constitute a disproportionate share of the poor