social psych 3

Divorce

40-55% of Americans get a divorce. Individualistic cultures have higher divorce rates that collectivistic ones. Individualists expect more passion and personal fulfillment in a marriage, which puts greater pressure on the relationship. Marriage has become more challenging in individualistic recent times as couples expect more fulfillment from marriage but invest fewer resources in it. Coldness, disillusionment and hopelessness are better predictors of divorce than arguments. In successful marriages positive interactions (smiling, touching, complimenting and laughing) outweighed negative interactions (sarcasm, disapproval and insults) by at least 5-1 ratio. People usually stay married if they got married after 20, both grew up in stable 2 parent homes, fated for a while before marriage, are well and similarly educated, enjoy a stable income from a good job, live in a small town or on a farm, do not dohabit or become pregnant before marriage, religiously committed, similar age, faith and education.

Stereotype threat - consequence of prejudice

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. like a self-fulfilling prophecy that hammers one's reputation into one self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects. Being placed in a situation where others expect you to perform poorly, one's anxiety may cause them to confirm the belief. spencer, steele and Quinn 1999- gave equally capable men and women a difficult math task. When participants were led to believe that they were gender differences in scores, women scored lower than men. when the threat of confirming the stereotype was removed ,when gender differences were not expected, women did as well as men. The same result is true for older people who made related stereotype threats, and resulting under performance, have appeared across tons of studies. Blacks underperform whites only when taking the test under conditions high in stereotype threat. A similar stereotype threat effect has occurred with Hispanic Americans. Stereotype threat also affects athletic performance as well. People with disabilities who have concerns about others' negative stereotypes for themselves can also hinder their achievement. If students are told they are at risk for failure, the stereotype may negatively impact performance. It may cause them to "disidentify" with school and seek a scene of self esteem somewhere. As African-American students move from 8 to 10th grade their school performance becomes more weakly linked to their self-esteem. It is better to challenge students to believe in their potential. Black students responded well to criticism of the writing when also told that they are capable of making the corrections. Claud stelle on stereotype threat- Steele noticed underperformance in colleges within minorities. There's no performance wasn't caused by group differences in preparation, it happened at all levels of preparation. Steele looked at performance by producing it in a laboratory by simply having motivated people perform a difficult task in the domain where the group is negatively stereotyped. They found that they could eliminate this underperformance by making the same task irrelevant to the stereotype, by removing the stereotype threat. This shows the importance of two things: the first being the importance of life contacts in shaping psychological functioning and secondly the importance of social identities like age, race and gender in that context.

Secure attachment

A secure attachment is a healthy attachment. Secure attachment occurs when there is a caretaker or some sort that is responsive to the child's needs and freely shows positive genuine emotions. In secure attachment when the mother leaves the room the baby starts crying, when the mother returns the baby suns to her, holds her and then relaxes and returns to playing and exploring. Children who have secure attachments in childhood form a working model of intimacy that leads to secure romantic attachments, they feel close and comfortable with their partner but do not need to be with them all the time. It is easy to get and be close with their partner and feel intimate but you are also comfortable and confident being independent. Securely attached romantic relationships tend to be satisfying and enduring. 56% of the adult population has secure attachment as babies and reports secure attachment in current relationships.

Attractiveness and dating - physical attractiveness

A young woman's physical attractiveness is a moderately good predictor of how frequently she dates and a young man is a really good predictor of how frequently he dates. Men think about physical attractiveness whereas women more than men assign importance to honesty, humor, kindness and dependability. The wife's physical attractiveness predicted the husband's marital satisfaction better than it has been physical attractiveness predicted the wife's satisfaction. Gay and straight men both our appearance more than lesbian or straight woman. Hatfield 1966 - over 750 University of Minnesota first year students were matched for a welcome week dance. The researchers gave each student a personality aptitude test but matched the couples randomly. On the night of the dance a couples dance and talk for 2 1/2 hours and then evaluate their dates. Only one thing mattered in determining how they evaluated her dates and it was her physically attractive the person was. The more attractive the woman was the more the man liked her and wanted to see her again and the more attractive the man was the more the woman liked him and wanted to date him again a meta-analysis of 97 studies on men and women placed about the same fairly high importance on physical attractiveness and about the same lower importance on earning prospects. Physical appearance matters less among couples who were friends before they started dating. Once people have gotten to know each other over months or years of jobs or friendships, focus more on each person's unique qualities rather than their physical attractiveness and status. Among 167 couples, those who knew each other for longer and were friends before dating were less similar in physical attractiveness than those who had known each other for a short amount of time and we're not friends before they dated. Looks can also influence voting. In a study done by Alexander Todorov in 2005 they showed Princeton university students photographs of two major candidates for the House of Representatives and Senate. Based on looks alone the students correctly guess the winners of 72% of the senate and 67% of the house races. Then we were like the vote for physically attractive females, and women were more likely to vote for approachable male looking candidates. We perceive attractive people as likeable and also likeable people as attractive. Sometimes when you like someone more you see them as more attractive over time. When we discover someone's similarities to us it also makes them appear more attractive. The more in love a woman is with a man the more physically attractive she finds him. The more in love people are the less attractive they find all others of the opposite sex.

Religion prejudice

After the aftermath of 911 and the Iraq and Afghanistan war, Americans with a strong national identity express the most disdain for arib immigrants. Unfavorable views of Muslims have increase between 2014 and 2016

Is racial prejudice disappearing?

Although some statistics are optimistic, racial prejudice is not disappearing. In 2928% of Americans had racism is a big problem and in 20 1550% said it was. There's been a recent increase in reported hate crime incidents. 4% of American whites would not vote for a black presidential candidate and are surely among the 31% who agree that the country needs to protect and preserve its European heritage. Obama would have received 6% greater support according to one statistical analysis of voter racial and political attitudes if there had not been white racial prejudice. People also tend to under report their negative stereotypes and feelings. In the United States whites have tended to contrast the present with the opposite passport perceiving racial progress and Swift. Blacks have tended to contrast the present with an equally fair world "which has not yet been realized "and perceive somewhat less progress. Changing racial attitudes of white Americans from 1958-2012 - election - 4% of American white would not vote for a black presidential candidate. They are probably among the 31% of people that agreed the country needs to "protect and preserve is white European heritage quote. Since 1958 there has been a decrease in the percentage of people who would not vote for a well-qualified black candidate and an increase in the percentage who would vote for a well-qualified black candidate that their party nominated.

Prosocial versus altruism

Altruism is a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self interest, desire to help even if it involves a cost.altruism is selfishness in reverse as people give up time and possibly even physical safety. Prosocil behavior is the umbrella term that includes altruism. In prosocial behavior people do something and want people to think they are a good person for it or want to get something back.

The detachment process

Among dating couples, the closer and longer the relationship and the fewer alternatives the more painful the breakup. People recall more pain over the break up months or years later when they are the one who ended it. They feel guilt over hurting someone, and distress/ upset if their ex is persistent in getting back together and are unsure how to respond. A study showed a 10 fold increase in depression symptoms when a marriage has disagreement rather than satisfaction. When a marriage is very happy, life itself is usually very happy. 57.9% of people are happy with life as a whole if their marriage is very happy, 11.5% happy with life as a whole id marriage is pretty happy and 5.1% happy with life as a whole is not too happy.

LGBT prejudice

Anti-gay attitudes worldwide or strongest among those who are older, less educated and male. Heterosexual males high in masculinity expressed most prejudiced against transgender individuals. Too see the psychological and physical harm that LGBTQ prejudiced exerts look hatzenbuehler 2014. Job discrimination - experiments have submitted many hundreds of fictitious pairs of women's or men's resumes to job openings. By random assignment one applicant in each pair acknowledge, among and other activities volunteering a gay lesbian organization. And response callbacks are much less likely to the gay associated applicants. Job discrimination is even more pronounced for transgender people, 90% of them report being harassed or miss treated at work Support for gay marriage - in Western countries support for same-sex marriage has surged over the past two decades Harrassment - eight out of 10 gay lesbian adolescents report experiencing sexual harassment in the prior year. The LGBT community is victimized by hate crimes Rejection - 40% of gay and lesbian Americans have said it would be difficult for someone in their community to live openly as gay or lesbian. 39% report having a friend or family member or reject them because of their sexual orientation and 54% of transgender people report being harassed at school and 8% were kicked out of the house for being transgender.

Attachment styles - how love is maintained and developed

Attachment styles were developed by Mary Ainsworth as she looked at babies 1-3 years old to see how attached they were to their primary caregiver. There are three types of attachment, secure attachment, insecure avoidant attachment and insecure anxious/ambivalent attachment. Ainsworht looked at these attachment styles in childhood and later psychologists looked at them later in life in terms of romantic attachment and discovered a strong correlation. In her study, Ainsworth had the baby play in an unfamiliar situation, a laboratory made playroom, with the mother present. The mother and the child play together and then the mother leaves the room. The babies reaction to her leaving and especially how they react to her re entering the room help determine attachment style.

How is implicit bias measured?

Because implicit attitudes are unaware, unintentional and uncontrollable you can't ask people about their own bais you must use other measures. People may be unwilling or unable to self report their attitudes so measures must be indirect (non verbal, response latencies, IAT) to measure implicit bias. Perceptions of anger: Hugenberg and Bodenhausen 2003 - in this study participants looked at faces of white and black people whose faces were computer generated to make sure they had the same facial expression but different features. Participants would see a black and a white face at the same time and be asked which face you see anger or an emotion expressing the onset of anger. The results were that in white faces people identified the actual angry face but for balck faces they found anger starting earlier. Lots of different trials with different emotions found that people reported onset of aggression at different levels for blacks and whites. Shooter bias studies: participants look at slides and see men of different races that are holding a weapon or an everyday object. Participants are instructed to as fast as they can, press the "shoot" button when the person is holding a gun and press the don't shoot button if it is an everyday object. Results are that people are more likely to shoot a black target versus a white target. Police officers are far more likely to shoot a black target regardless of what they are holding than community members are. Participants are slower to press and don't shoot when the unarmed target is black. Tendency to shoot black targets regardless of if they are armed or not. Communities were more likely to shoot in general, officials were better at not shooting but were more likely to shoot a target when black than white. ⅔ of black participants don't show a black on black bias, but ⅓ do know the stereotype of their own culture. In general there is much less bias in non white people. The studies help explain why amadou diallo, a black immigrant in New York City was shot 41 times by police officers were moving his wallet from his pocket Implicit Association Test - created by greenwald, banaji and nozick. Prejudice illustrates a dual attitude system. Using the implicit Association test test we can see that we have different explicit conscious and implicit automatic attitudes towards the same target. The IAT assesses implicit bias by measuring people's speed of association. People may retain from childhood a habitual automatic fear or dislike of people for whom they now express respect and admiration. Although explicit attitudes may change dramatically with education, implicit attitudes may linger, changing only when we form new habits to practice. Whtie and gold versus balck and bad versus black and gold and white and bad - Larger difference indicates stronger social association or bias.

Behaviors that occur in troubled relationships

Behaviors call into two different continuums. Constructive vs deconstructive and active versus passive. Constructive means they are meant to save or repair relationships. Deconstructive behaviors are when you are trying to make the relationship end. Active you are actively doing something to help or harm the relationship and passive you are waiting for something to happen. These continuums can combine and make behaviors Active and deconstructive: Behaviors that might concur when you are actively attempting to destroy the relationship - cheating, flirting, attention towards another person, lying, starting fights, threatening to break up, could be verbal or even physical abuse, could be actual leaving - all these actively hurt the relationship Passive and deconstructive: Ignoring, neglect, passively allowing distance to let the relationship deteriorate, refuse to deal with problems, put little time into the relationship, ghost them. This is a very common way people try to send a message instead of saying it Constructive and active: Trying to repair the relationship- couples counseling (worth saving so lets work on it), going to therapist or sit down with the person and work and discuss changing behaviors, actively working with the hope that it's gonna end well Constructive but passive: Passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to approve, ignoring the problems hoping that they will get better. Loyalty - supportive instead of fighting but not actively working to make things better.

How stereotypes are developed

Cognitive methods are categorization and assimilation. Humans categorize with very little thought, there are cognitive benefits to it. this is why it's so difficult to fix prejudice and discrimation because we are built to categorize. After we categorize a person into a group, we assimilate and assume that people in the categories share characteristics that have been assigned to the group through culture and ignore the inherent variability. This is very prevalent in minimal group research performed by Henry Tajfel in the 1970 in which he found that you don't have to have real social groups for stereotyping to occur, you can simply create an arbitrary group and tell people they are a part of it. Example of a study would be you see a bunch of slides with dots, you have too many estimated dots, answers are irrelevant but researchers assign participants to the "overestimate" or "underestimate" group. The two groups would then complete and stereotypes would quickly develop a bit what the over group was like compared to the underground and vice versa. Group members also give positive bias to their group and take away from another group. we so readily categorize because it gives us cognitive benefits and self evaluative benefits: Self evaluative benefits: social identity theory - social identity theory says that we get positive thoughts about ourself in two ways 1 - individual achievement, 2- group membership, people get good feelings form a group. there are three steps: 1 - categorization, put yourself into a group. 2- identify with the group, "I like being white", you share these traits with members of the group. 3 - self esteem boost comes from comparing your group to other groups. "im a woman and I have less social power but im better at multitasking" while comparing, you decide your gonna make comparisons and which ones your going to make so that you come out on top. when making comparisons in-group favoritism/bias is really important because your group comes out on top, you see your group as better because of your group serving bias/ the fundemental attribution errors when making these comparisons. the social identity theory is pushed my feelings of goodness about your own group, rather than feelings of dislike for other groups. the self esteem boosts we get come from positive in-group bias and feeling rather than negative outgrip bias. not how much you hate others, how much you like your own. People in lower power can get self esteem boosts by measuring and comparing themselves on a different dimension. Instead of looking at money they can look at family or culture to help themselves feel good about themself. 3 steps to self identity theory 1 - categorize, 2 - identify, 3- compare. in-group bias is prominent in the identify and compare steps because your group is seen as better, group serving bias is really important in the comparing step because of the attributions you make to come out on top. Social identity theory favors prejudice as you feel more positively about your own group than others.

Gender discrimination

Compared to women, men are three times more likely to commit suicide and to be murdered. Men die five years sooner than women. Males are most of those with an intellectual disability or autism, as well as students in special education programs. Promale bias does exist, In 1964 study women were given several short articles and asked to change the value of each. Sometimes they give an article as a tribute to a male author and other times to a female author. In general articles receive lower ratings when they were attributed to a female. Showing that women discriminated against other women. swim, Borgida, and Myers 1987- they wanted to further examine women expressing biased against other women. The most common result among 104 studies showed that there was no difference. Most frequently judgments of someone's work or unaffected by whether the work was attributed to a male or a female. Eagly 1994 - summarizing other studies of people's evaluations of women and men as leaders, Eagly concluded that experiments have not demonstrated an overall tendency to devalue women's work. A later report showed that in the five national studies revealed that faculty preferred female job candidates over identical qualified male ones. Yet gender bias is not becoming extinct in western countries, it is often just more subtle. Violate gender stereotypes and people most often will react.

Do opposites attract?

Despite the popular theory that opposites complement each other, similar people are more likely to be romantically attracted to one another. Even with attitudes and behavioral traits like religion, ages, races, smoking behaviors and intelligence, similarity still carries more weight. Some complimentary (the supposed tendency that in a relationship with two people each complement what is missing in the other) may evolve as relationships progress. Yet, people are still more likely to marry and like those whose needs, attitudes, and personalities are similar.

Discrimination

Discrimination is a negative behavior, while prejudice is a negative attitude. You can see discfimination, it is reflected in behavior. Unjustified negative action towards a social group or its members because of their group membership (which is a prejudicial attitude). Unjustified behavior towards a group or its members. Attitudes and behavior are often loosely linked. Discrimination comes in two types: major acts and everyday acts. It can also be individual or systemic. Prejudiced attitudes need not breed hostile acts and all oppression does not spring from prejudice. Racism and sexism are institutional practices that discriminate even when there is no prejudicial intent. They can be racism without racism and sexism without sexists. A lot of discrimination reflects no intended harm it's simply favoritism towards people like oneself. Job ads for male-dominated vacations feature words associated with male stereotypes "we are a dominant engineer in firms seeking individuals who can perform in a competitive environment. And job ads for female dominated vacations which do the opposite "we seek people who will be sensitive to clients needs and can help develop warm client relationships' '. The result of such ads may be institutional sexism. Without intending any prejudice, the gendered wording helps sustain gender inequality.

Beautiful is a good stereotype.

Disney princesses, The beautiful is good stereotype is learned early on and there does seem to be a kernel of truth in it. Beautiful people tend to be more socially confident, have better social skills. More popular than less beautiful people, more extroverted. There's more practice looking at an open field situation how much people interact with beautiful versus non beautiful kids. More beautiful kids get more chances to talk to adults. You get practice talking.

Dissimilar attitudes vs similar attitudes

Dissimilar attires turn us off to others more than similar attitudes turn us on. Baumeister, bratslavsky, finkenauer and vohs 2001 looked at dissimilar attitudes. Destructive acts harm close relationships more than constructive acts build them. Bad moods affect our thinking and memory more than good moods. There are more words for negative rather than positive emotions and when asked to think of an emotion people state a negative one. Bad events tend to evoke more misery than good events evoke joy. Single bad events (traumas) have more lasting effects than singler very good events. Bad routine events receive more attention and trigger more rumination than do routine good events. Losing money upsets people more than gaining the same amount of money makes them happy. Bad family environments override genetic influence on intelligence more than do very good family environments. A bad reputation is easier to acquire, and harder to shed than a good one. Poor health decreases happiness more than good health increases it. The power of bad prepares us to deal with threats and protect us from death and disability. The importance of bad is one likely reason why the first century of psychology has focused so much on the bad. There were 10 articles on negative topics for every one dealing with the positive emotions of joy.

Cognitive sources of prejudice: distinctiveness

Distinctive people - Differences from other people are more exaggerated and made noticeable if you are the only person of your gender race or nationality. When someone in the group is made conspicuous there is a tendency to see that person as the cause of whatever happens. People are often defined by their most distinctive traits and behaviors. if someone has prototypically black features, they are made to look more black so they get more discrimination. distinctiveness is very depended on context, you can be distinct in one situation and homogenous in the other. who you are with (context) and prototypically of your features effect distinctiveness, if you are very distinct in a situation or have prototypically racial features you will be more heavily discriminated against. As shown in a 1980 experiment by Imber and Langer. They asked Harvard students to watch a video of a man reading. The students paid closer attention when they were led to think that he was out of the ordinary like a cancer patient homosexual or a millionaire. They notice characteristics that other viewers ignored, and their evaluation was more extreme. The extra attention we pay distinctive people create an illusion that they differ from others more than they really do. Distinctiveness also feeds self consciousness. When people are distinct in the situation they report being stared at, subject to insensitive comments and receive bad service. They are sensitive to others' reactions. However we can often misinterpret and miss perceive others as reacting to our distinctiveness. In a study conducted by klick and sterna in 1980- Women in a Dartmouth study were led to believe that they had a scar on their face that was made by make up, yet before they engage in conversation discard was actually removed. Compared with women who were led to believe their conversational partner merely thought that they had an allergy figured women became acutely sensitive to how their partners were looking at them. They raided their partners as more tense, distant and patronizing. Observers later analyze the videotapes to see how the partners treated disfigured persons and confide no differences in treatment. Self-conscious about being different, they just figured women have misinterpreted mannerisms and comments that would otherwise not have been noticed. Self-conscious interactions between a majority and minority person can therefore feel tense even when both are well-intentioned. Vivid cases - vivid instances, in which we have a really prominent experience with an individual as distinctive, are very available in memory but revelry represent the larger group. Generalizing from a single case can cause issues, such vivid instances are readily available in memory but rarely represent the whole group. Americans estimated that 25% of the population is homosexual, when in reality is is much closer to 4%.

What to do when someone expresses bias

Doing nothing is a bad idea because in the immediate normative context you aren't changing the norms of any given situation if you don't do anything. If someone tells a sexist joke and nothing is said the person who made the joke will believe others think it is okay and are therefore more likely to discriminate against women. If you confront that person you change the normative context and people are more likely to adjust their behavior to fix the context. In the long term change isn't going to occur overnight, but confronting people will have a long term impact and is something that can be done in any given moment. You are condoning and accepting the bais behavior, confronting peers with interpersonal confrontation when they make a biased remark can reduce furiutre discrimination. People who are confronted in similar situations are less likely to make the same comment. Occasionally the original comment was unintentionally offensive so when someone tells them it was offensive they will stop that behavior if they want to do the right thing. Ashburn-nardo 2008 confrontation study- to reduce prejudice and discrimination you have to confront but it comes at a cost. There can sometimes be perceived and/or real interpersonal and possibly physical costs. Costs are usually emotional, people say things aren't a big deal but you can become embarrassed if confrontation goes poorly. Confronting prejudice responses model: the first step in confrontation is knowing something is wrong, then consider if it is worthy of confronting, take responsibility to confront, think about how you're gonna confront, then actual confrontation. People can mess up at any one of these steps. In the case of sexism, people are more likely to say that a sexist joke is less offensive than a direct statement and are less likely to think the person making the comment is sexist than if they had made a statement. People see jokes as less offensive so they are less likely to confront and if they do confront they will be less assertive.

Why do we help? Theories of helping

Evolutionary theory, social norms, situational determines, social exchange theory and empathy/altruism

Explicit prejudice

Explicit prejudice can be pinpointed "i feel this way about a certain group". Explicit bias came to be studied in the late 1900 and the early 2000s. Yet its rates were decreasing, overtime people became less willing to express their explicit bias, so researchers turned towards implicit prejudice because even though explicit prejudice couldnt be seen that much anymore, we knew there was prejudice. In 2015/2016 explicit prejudice rates started to increase. The increases can be due to social media, fake news, the trump effect, normative contexts, group status thread. Although explicit attitudes may change dramatically with education, implicit attitudes may linger, changing only when we form new habits to practice.

Prosocial behavior / volunteering

Fancy way of saying helping, any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person. Motives for volunteering can be self or other oriented motivations. Motives for volunteering: Values "I volunteer because this is the right thing to do". Understanding "I want to learn about a new culture or to grow as a person or improve my ability in a skill". Career volunteering because it will allow me to get my foot in the door" intern somewhere and they might end up wanting to hire you. Social "i volunteer because people close to me volunteer" or "i volunteer to meet new people". Enhancement "volunteering because it makes you feel good as a person, makes you feel better about yourself". Protective "volunteering allows me to feel less guilty about how much i have in my life" - makes you feel less guilty, self protective. Motivations can be other oriented (values and understanding) which predict genuine satisfaction with volunteering positions and people are more likely to continue volunteering. Self oriented values (career, social, enhancement, protective). Single versus multiple motives. People with single motivations to volunteer tend to be more satisfied, they have value motivation, volunteering makes their resume look better, they feel less guilty. People who are more satisfied are more likely to continue volunteering.

Fatal attractions

Female 1995 asked 300 college men and women about qualities that first attached them to someone and why they broke up. In 30% of the cases the qualities you were attracted to are the reasons why the relationship ended. Idea that what you first really attract ends up being fatal. Tended to fall in 3 categories Different from you: You're attracted to them because they're different, older, have different interests, and at the beginning that's really exciting. But you might end up breaking up with them because there's a lacking connection, nothing in common. Having commonality is really important in relationships. At first it was exciting but later you don't understand them and you have no common ground to talk about The person is extremely unique in a general sense: Qualities that make them different from most of the people you knew at the time, but later the differences became weird and things you didn't want to deal with Person has a quality that is extreme: Demonstrates a deep and intense interest in you, very attractive, but then it becomes annoying, cliningy, overwhelming, no personal space, can become jealous and possessive. Can also manifest as being Really interested in them because they are such hard workers and really committed to their job - relationship isn't a priority, not gonna be a lot of time left for you. These are fatal attractions.

Propinquity studies

Festinger 1950 propinquity - Looked at who were friends at mit, field study, looked at married people. In 1950 lots of college students were married and only men went to mit. Traced friendship formation in an apartment between couples. 17 2 story apartment buildings and each had 10 apartments in them. Looked at within buildings and how close apartments were and how many people were to say they were friends. 65% of friends lived in the same building. 41% of next door neighbors indicated that they were best friends, 22% said those who lived 2 doors away were really good friends Shin 2019 3 studies - looked at people, told them to draw a circle for there 3 closest friends or three friends around an already drawn circle representing themself. he hypothesized and found true that in your construct, if you feel close with someone you will draw there circle closer to yours. if you dont feel as close, you'll draw them farther away. this study thought about representation and schemas, if you think people are closer to you emotionally, cognitively, relationship wise, you will draw them conceptually closer to you. this study is essentially symbolic. Has a second dusty r and j: Had many participants and a female confederate, manipulated how close they sat. one condition they sat 80 and the next they sat double that. They took turns reading from romeo and juliet. Female confederate. The IV is if they were sitting close or far. Then they asked the man how much they liked the confederate, how attractive. They found that if the confederate was sitting closer they reported liking her more and finding her more attractive Third study closeness and attractiveness: Had pre tested women on attractiveness and took pics of equally attractive women, then they had men wear goggles where they looked at 2 faces at the same time. One would appear closer than the other. Did lots of trials where they asked which person was more attractive. Did it over many trials, found that the people who saw the image that was closer rated her more attractive almost every time.

Motivational sources of prejudice

Frustration and aggression (scapegoat theory) (social identity theory)

Conformity - social source of prejudice

If prejudice is socially accepted people will follow the path of least resistance and conform to it. People become more likely to favor discrimination after hearing someone else do so. And less supportive of women after hearing sexist humor. Those who confirmed most to other social norms were also most prejudiced. Hate speech can be toxic. Sorel 2018 reported that frequent and repetitive exposure to hate speech leads to desensitization increasing out group prejudice. Moreover the FBI 2017 confirms that 2016 saw 5% increase and hate crime incidents. President has the power to influence norms and norms matter people especially prejudices that are socially acceptable and hide the ones that are not. Children who have seen women somewhere else, children of employed women, have expressed less stereotype use of men and women. Women exposed to stem experts express more positive and pleasant attitudes towards their studies and display more effort on stem tests.

Implicit prejudice

Implicit pais operates outside of your awareness and can be reported if one is willing and able. Implicit bias/attitudes are characterized by unawareness in which people don't know how/ or don't think about how/what they think about a given group. Another charerericic is unintentional - someone can work hard not to be prejudiced and still be prejudiced. And the last characteristic is that it is uncontrollable. Implicit bias is an automatic preference or non preference for a group based on implicit attitudes and stereotypes. Implicit bias has been around forever, it is unconscious and not something that is easy to report or that people are willing to report. Early on we learn associations like blavk is bad and white is good, we all have implicit biases. These associations about social groups were developed at a young age and have been around for your whole life so they stick and are very hard to get rid of, making it very difficult to control stereotypes.

Evolutionary theory of helping

In evolution the goal is to pass genes on, which for a long time made it difficult to explain why we would put our lives and time on the line to help others. The solution was Kin Selection. Kin selection: the idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection. you are more likely to help someone who shares genetic material with you. The goal is to pass genes down, people like brothers and sisters have shared genetic material so you will help them if it means the same genetic material will move forward. In a non life threatening situation people are likely to help people genetic or not genetic but In life or death situations people are more likely to risk their life with someone they share genetics with. This is cross cultural. In parents, genetic egoism forsters parental altruism. Although evolution favors self sacrifice for one's children, children have less at stake in the survival of their parents so parents will generally be more devoted to their children than children are to them. We feel more empathy for a distressed person in our ingroup versus our outgroup and even feel schadenfreude (secret pleasure at another's misfortune) for outgroup or rival members. Aside from skin selection, humans also overcome selfishness and help through direct reciprocity, indirect reciprocity and group selection. In indirect reciprocity people will help someone if that person will help another person that will then help them. In direct reciprocity people help someone else because they expect help in return. Reciprocity is stronger among humans in rural villages than in big cities. Small towns, schools, churches, work teams and dorms all foster community spirit where people take care of one another. Group selection also helps overcome selfishness because groups of mutually supportive altruists outlive groups of non altruists.

Cognitive source of prejudice: Attribution

In explaining others actions we frequently commit the fundamental attribution error as we attribute others behavior so much to their inner factors that we discount important situational factors which is one of the main reasons we have prejudice. we do this a lot when comparing our group to other groups because we have in-group bias and see our group as better because when commit the FAE and have group serving bias when comparing outsells. The more people assume that human traits are fixed, the stronger are their stereotypes and the greater their acceptance of racial inequities. Group serving bias - group serving bias is explaining away outgroup members positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their depositions (while executing such behaviors by one's own group) thomas pettigrew, attribution errors bias peoples explanations of group members behaviors. We give our own group members the benefit of the doubt, we are more generous. When explaining acts by members of other groups, we more often assume the worst and say its due to an internal deposition, committing the FAE. As shown by Pettigrew in 1980, the light solution that white perceived as mere horsing around when done by another white person was seen as a violent gesture when committed by a black person. Positive behavior by our group members is more often dismissed, it may be seen as a special case, as owing to looking for some special advantage, as demanded by the situation or as attributed to extra effort. Disadvantage groups and groups that stress modestly exhibit less of this group serving bias while immodest groups that are invested in their own greatness react to threats with the group serving bias and hostility. When there is a conflict or threat a focus on differences in foster group level attributions and increase hostility. Just world phenomenon - the tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. And a series of experiments done by Lennar in 1980 and Miller and Lennar in 1978 discovered that merely observing another innocent person being victimized is enough to make the victim seem less worthy. From early childhood Lennar argues that we are taught that good is rewarded and evil is punished. Hard work in virtue pays dividends, laziness in morality does not. that being said, people who are Hugh in just world believe that people get what they deserve and probably dont work hard enough. people low in just wold realize the strutual, situational and institutional reasons that people may not be successful or have bad outcomes. the just world phenomenon looked at rape as shown by Carly in 1999. Just world phonomon alters are impressions of rape victims. Carly had people read details descriptions of interactions between a man and a woman in one scenario the men and women met her boss for dinner went home to his house and enjoyed a glass of wine and he asked her to marry her and the other one they went home enjoyed a glass of wine and he ended up raping her. Given this ending people see the rape as inevitable and blame the woman for provocative behavior that seems faultless in the first scenario. People are indifferent from social injustice not because they have no concern for injustice, but because they see no injustice. Those who assume adjust world believe that rape victims must have behave seductively, battered spouses must have provoked the beatings, poor people don't deserve better, sick people are responsible for their illnesses and teens who are bullied online deserve it. Such beliefs enable successful people to reassure themselves that they do deserve what they have. The just world assumption discounts the uncontrollable factors that can lead and derail good efforts even by talented people. Just world thinking leads people to justify their cultures' familiar social systems, like institutional racism or sexism. From childhood, on the way things are, we're inclined to think, it's the way things essentially ought to be.

Similarity - antecedents of attraction

In general, people that are more similar tend to become closer. Commonality is part of the glue that holds friends together. closed fields: A closed field is a situation in which people are forced to interact - this class and breakout rooms are closed fields. Propinquity in this situation increases liking and Pure interaction is important. Diversity in educational settings is super important because it's a closed field, and can force students to interact with people that are different because propinquity makes them like the person. Open fields: Open fields are situations in which people are free to interact or not interact as they choose. Not forcing people to interact so if they like each other it's probably due to similarity. This is a problem for prejudice and disrimination because it usually occurs in an open field and open fields decrease interactions because they are not forced like closed fields. Interactions increase liking, which would limit P and D.

Why is explicit prejudice increasing in the past 6-8 years?

In recent years explicit prejudice has been increasing in the US and is hypothesized to be due to the trump effect - normative contexts, social media, fake news, group status thread. Prejudice and discirmination used to be very blatant, people would say things that they would not be willing to say because they are more careful now. People have learned to hide their prejudice to avoid being labeled a racist or a sexist, but when people think it is safe and that they won't be identified people prejudices can be revealed. In recent years explicit prejudice has been increasing in the US and is hypothesized to be due to Trump, social media/fake news, group status thread, normative contexts. The trump effect: Trump has said things presidents have never said before and disparate groups in a far more aggressive manner. Research has found that Americans are more likely to discriminate against the groups that Trump has discriminated against than ever before. Trump has created a normative context in which it is okay to express explicit prejudice, expressing prejudice thoughts that were previously subdued is now a social norm. Normative context: for a long time it was not okay to say discriminatory things, but now it is okay to say what's not okay. There is a new perceived acceptability of prejudice as more explicit prejudice is being shown towards groups targeted by the presidential campaign, yet for social groups that are discriminated against by the presidential campaign there is no national increase in explicit prejudice for those groups. The trump effect. social media - the increased use of social media allows people to be more anonymous which increases how fast ideas spread. fake news: in the past it was more obvious between what was real news and what was fake, but know those lines have been blurred. there was always bias but it had no agenda, it was with what was reported and what wasn't - echo chambers. but now if people wanna hear liberal or conservative they can get news fomr corripsoning sources (CNN versus FOX) which allows us to only hear things we agree with which allows us to hold onto our ideas more than we used too. same thing occurs with social media. News sources used to be echo chambers, they did not all have to report certain events but when they did report an event it was reported in the same fashion as all other stations. with fake news its the same thing, if we go to a station that can just claim things are false we are going to believe those things are false, or we are going to believe the fake news they claim which makes us think negeitvly about whatever group or indium of culture is being degraded. this can especially be true went he president claims things, changes normative context. Group status thread: by 2042 current racial minorities will comprise another 50% of the population and whites will still hold the power and wealth but they will not be the numerical majority. There has also been an increasing wealth gap between black and whites since 1960. Research ahs shown that making people aware of this racial shift will make whites feel threatened and they actually engage in more discrimination in order to protect their status. Group status thread can be seen with the BLM movement, in closing the wealth gap it's threatening for white people because they will have to give something up in order for black people to have gains that will bring them closer to whites.

Gender discrimination in the western world

In the western world gender discrimination is less subtle. The biggest violence against women occurs prenatally. Around the world people tend to prefer having baby boys. In the United States in 1941 38% of expected pregnant women and men said that they preferred to have a boy if they could have only one child. 24% prefer the girl and 23% if they had no preference and in 2011 40% of people still said they prefer to have a boy. Given the widespread use of ultrasounds determine the sex of the fetus and the growing number of ability to abortions, in some countries this preferences for boys are affecting the number of boys and girls. There is a female shortage in India, China, and other countries. This female shortage also contributes to increased violence, crime problem of prostitution and trafficking of women.

Individual and systematic discrimination

Individual discrimination is when someone treats you a certain way based on your belonging to a group. Systematic discrimination - sometimes called instituional discirmination, it is discrimination built into the structure, policies and roles of an institution. It's just "how it is and how it's always been". many if not all institutions are built on racism and to some extent sexism.

Insecure anxious/ambivalent attachment

Insecure anxious/ambivalent attachment: happens with inconsistent caregivers, sometimes they are very attached and invested in the child and other times they ignore them. When the mother returns to the room the child may be indifferent or hostile. The child can't predict their caregivers behavior at any time or the attention they will receive. If the mother leaves and returns and the baby is still crying, won't accept toys or is resistant to engage with the mother they have an anxious/ambivalent attachment because in the past the mother has been inconsistent with her availability to attend to the child. The child could just be cranky so they are responding in this way, depending a lot on the specific moment. 19% of adults have an anxious/ambivalent attachment style, they can't get close to their partner, worried their partner doesn't love them,less trusting, more fearful of their partner becoming interested in someone else, more possessive and jealous. They also reportedly wanted to completely merge with their partner. They can't feel happy, satisfied or comfortable without their partner.

Insecure avoidant attachment

Insecure avoidant attachment happens with aloof and distance caregivers who do not have a lot of intimacy with their child or pay much attention to the child. In the study, babies exhibit little distress during separation. if the baby is still sad after the mom comes back into the room and does not engage with her as her return doesn't make him happy, they have insecure attachment. 25% of adults have attachment that stems from avoidance as a child. Adults feel uncomfortable with intimacy and being close, have a hard time trusting and feeling like they can depend on their partner. They avoid closeness and tend to be less invested in relationships and more likely to leave them. More likely to be sexually unfaithful to partners and may be fearful and dismissing of attachment.

Stages of breaking up / detachment process

Intrapersonal phase: When an individual is thinking a lot about the relationship, thinking about whether or not they are satisfied or dissatisfied with the relationship, at the end of this stage the person decides that they need to withdraw from the relationship, thinking about cost and rewards, giving more than they are getting. At this part the partner might not know, no words have been spoken Dyadic phase: When the individual who thinks about breaking up begins to discuss unhappiness and possible breakup with the partner. At this stage, they might decide to try and repair the relationship, be intentional, go to couples counseling. They also might decide that it's done in which they go to social pohase Social phase: When a breakup is announced to other people, people tell close friends and try to get support. People will also maybe create a public story about what happened in the breakup. Public story might not add up with the dyadic phase, people don't need to know all the details Back to intrapersonal phase: Could be in individual or in both people, think about what went wrong, why didn't this workout. What did they learn from this for the next time?

Political prejudice

Liberals and conservatives detest and sometimes hate each other. They display virtually identical amounts of bias towards the other side. When processing political information each side is more accepting of information that supports their own views.

Hatzenbuehler 2014

Looks at if the disparaging attitude and discriminatory practices against gay lesbian people cause actual harm. State policies predict gay peoples health and wellbeing - in the United States states without gay lesbian hate crime and non-discrimination protection, lesbian Gay bisexual and transgender people experience substantially higher mood disorder rates, even after controlling for state differences in education and income. Community attitudes also predict LGBTQ health - communities were anti-gay prejudice is common are communities with higher rates of gay lesbian suicide and cardiovascular death. Gay lesbian individuals who experience discrimination are at risk for depression and anxiety. The suicide rate among gay lesbian teens is three times higher than for the general rate of teens Two quasi-experiments confirm the toxicity of gay stigma in the benefits of its removal- between 2001 and 2005, 16 states ban same-sex marriages, In those states gay and lesbian experience a 37% increase in mood disorders, a 42% increase and have to call disorders and a 248% increase in the general anxiety disorders. In other states there were no such increases in psychiatric disorders

Major acts and everyday acts of discriminmation

Major acts: job access is denied, quid pro quo harassment - an exchange in which you get a promotion or get fired if you dont sleep w your boss, its an exchange, hate crimes. Major acts are often legally actionable and make the news. Major acts are less stressful and harmful than everyday acts because they are not continuous. With major acts there is a way to deal with them like going to the police, going to court, going to counseling to seek help. Everyday acts: microaggressions, racist/sexist jokes or comments, poor service, less respect, being ignored "invisible treatment", cat calling. Everyday acts are more psychologically damaging because they are a part of everyday life and add up people become increasingly stressful everyday.

Mere exposure - proximity - antecedents to attraction

Mirror exposure is the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked and rated more positively after someone has been repeatedly exposed to it. Familiarity fosters fondness. Zajonc 1968, 1970 - tested University of Michigan and recorded that the more times they had seen a meaningless word or a Chinese ideograph, the more likely they were to say it meant something good. With hurricanes that due significant damages and the hurricane name is therefore said more frequently, babies are more likely to receive names starting with the letter, probably due to mere exposure. Attitudes towards social groups can also be changed by mere exposure, when people read stories about transgender individuals accompanied by pictures, they become more comfortable and less afraid with transgender people. The mirror exposure effect violates the common sense prediction of boredom, decreased interest, regarding repeatedly heard music or food taste. There is a thing as too much exposure, if repetitions are incessant liking eventually drops this can be seen in music tastes. Mirror exposure has a stronger effect when people receive stimuli without awareness. In one experiment by Zajonc in 1980 women heard music in one headphone and words in the other, they were asked to repeat the words out loud, focusing attention toward the words and away from the music. Later when women heard the music along with similar ones not previously played, they did not recognize the song. Nevertheless they liked the music that they had previously heard best. People can frequently recall immediately or intuitively liking or disliking something without remembering the reason. Zajonc argues that emotions are often more instantaneous than thinking. The mirror exposure theory also has a norm of adaptive significance as it is a hardwired phenomenon that predisposes are tractions and attachments. It helped our ancestors categorize things and people are either familiar and safe or unfamiliar and possibly dangerous. The mirror exposure effect colors our evaluations of others. We like familiar people and perceive them as happier. Mere exposure to the negative side is our wariness of the unfamiliar which may explain the automatic, unconscious prejudice people often feel when confronting those who are different. We like ourselves better the way we used to seeing ourselves. In one experiment researchers showed women pictures of themselves and their mirror images. The women liked their mirror images better because it was used when they were seeing in the mirror. The women's friends preferred the true picture, the image they were used to seeing. When people have no strong feelings about a product or candidate, repetition alone can increase sales. After endless repetition of a commercial shoppers have an unthinking automatic favorable response to the product.

Subtle racial prejudice

Most people support racial equality and deploy discrimination. yet three and four people who take the implicit Association test displaying automatic unconscious tendency to associate white, more than black, with favorable words. Some researchers call subtle prejudice modern prejudice or cultural racism. We can detect despise behaviors. Employment discrimination. MIT researchers sent 5000 resumes out in response to 1000 and 300 buried employment ads. Application to work randomly assigned white names like Emily or Greg received call back for every 10 resumes that was giving black name is Lakisha or Jamall received one call back for every 15 resumes sent Favoritism. Similar experience to find the Airbnb hosts less likely to accept applications from would be gas with African-American names. Longer in Uber and Lyft wait times and more cancellations for passengers with African-American names and half as much willingness of Australian bus drivers to admit dark skin people with an empty fare card. Traffic stops. And one analysis African-Americans and Latinos were four times more likely than whites to be searched, twice as likely to be arrested and three times more likely to be handcuffed and have excessive force used against him. African-Americans were also more likely than whites to be stopped and physically grabbed her pushed to the ground during an account with police. Patronization. Modern prejudice even appears as race sensitivity that leads to exaggerated reactions to isolated minority persons, over praising their accomplishments, criticizing their mistakes, and failing more black students than they would white students, about potential academic difficulty. At the Stanford study Kent Harbor gave white students a poorly written essay to evaluate. When the student was told that the writer was black they rated higher than they did when they were told the author was white, and they barely offered harsh criticisms. The evaluators probably wanted to avoid the appearance of bias by patronizing black as writers with lower standards. Inflated praise and insufficient criticism may hinder minority student achievement. In a later experiment they found that whites concerned about appearing biased not only rated and commenting more favorably on weak essays and attributed to black students, they also recommended less time for school development. To protect their own self image as unprejudiced a bent over backwards to give positive and unchallenging feedback.

Reducing prejudice

No simple remedy exists to reduce prejudice but the techniques currently used or as follows. If an equal status breach prejudice, we can seek to create cooperative, equal status relationships. If prejudice rationalize discriminatory behavior, we can mandate non-discrimination. If social institutions support prejudice, we can pull out of those supports. If our groups seem more homogeneous and they really are we can make an effort to personalize their members. If her automatic prejudice leads us to feel guilty, we can use that guilt to motivate outsells to break the prejudice habit.

Obesity prejudice

One analysis of 2.2 million social media post containing obese or fat revealed a stream of shaming and blaming insults criticisms and derogatory jokes. Overweight people Marry less often, gain less entry to desirable jobs and make less money. Wait discrimination exceeds race or gender discrimination and occurs at every employment stage. Weight discrimination is also the route of much of childhood bullying

Need for status, self regard and belonging

One psychological benefit of prejudice is feelings of superiority. Prejudice is often greater among those who are low and are slipping on the Socioeconomic ladder and among those whose positive self image is threatened. If our status is secure we have less need to feel superior and we express less prejudice. Thinking about one's mortality provokes enough insecurity to intensify in group favoritism in our group prejudice. people exhibiting terror management, which is people's self protective emotional and cognitive responses, including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldview and prejudice, when confronted with reminders of their mortality.

Relationship tips

One zinger can ease 20 acts of kindness: Zinger is something that you say that's mean to them, you say it in the moment, you let something slip that's really mean. Something that is said just to hurt the other person. Zingers are bad because you can't take it back, it's in the air between you forever. It can erase a lot of good kind things that happened in the relationships. You're gonna have arguments but if something comes up in your head and you wanna say it because it's gonna hurt the person especially if they have no control over it, just don't say it. Think about time and place for an argument: They can clear things up but out in public in a store is not the time to bring something up Little changes in oneself can lead to huge changes in the relationship: We think everything has to do with the other person and that they need to change, this can be the case but if things are going great you can make little changes in your own behaviour that can make huge changes in the relationships. If it isn't exciting- might wanna break up bc your bored - think about changes you could make to bring happiness into the relationships - leaving little notes somewhere, touch them more intentionally, people notice the small things and often they can change the whole feel of the relationship Your partner is not a mind- reader: Women grow up with a lot of literature where we read about how men should behave, that they should know that we are upset. If you want a partner to know that you're angry you need to use your words. Don't pout and say nothing is wrong. Exacerbates the problem because they dont act and try to make it better, but you're saying nothing is wrong. Don't expect them to know something is wrong when you say nothing is wrong. If they don't ask then maybe you do have some reason to be mad. Need to practice relationship skills in order to be good at them: They don't happen naturally, don't stay in a relationship that's bad for you but if it's not a bad relationship think about the skills that you are getting out of ething in the relationship. Don't bail at the very first bad thing that happens - try to work through it. Not even about if it's your final relationship but tis good practice in knowing how to be in a good intimate relationship Not the differences, but how they are handled that cause problems: You probably don't want the person in your relationship to agree with everything you believe, that's pretty boring. You want to be able to talk about stuff you have differences on. It's okay to agree to disagree. If you're arguing back and forth, it's okay to be like okay ya we aren't gonna agree. That's totally fine! It's problematic when people can agree and then think they can be with the other. Fundamental stuff is different Think about if your argument style differs from your partners style: The techniques that men and women use in an argument, women in general seem to have a harder time than men in accepting emotional distance. Men seem to have a harder time handling direct conflict. When an argument happens the woman will want to talk about it and talk it out, but the man is like no i don't know what to say so they often withdraw and shut down.

How is love developed and maintained? - attachment and attachment styles

Our dependence as infants strengthens our human bonds. Children may become withdraward, scared and silent if deprived of familiar arrangements, sometimes in the case of extreme neglect.there is a big correlation between how infants learn to attach to primary caregivers and to romantic partners later in life. Passionate love explains the intense love between a parent and an infant. Infants welcome physical affection, feel stressed when separated and express intense affection when reunited. These are all the same feelings that young adult lovers feel in passionate love which posed the question if infant attachment styles carry over to adult relationships. The effects of attachment styles can last a lifetime and have strong effects on adult relationships. Meta analysis of 188 studies, avoidantly attached people were less satisfied and supported in their relationships, anxiously attached people experienced more relationship conflict. The most difficult pairing seems to be an anxious woman and an avoidant man, these couples show the highest level of stress when they anticipated conflict and found it more difficult to give and seek care from their partner.

Types of love

Passionate love: The hot part of love, feelings of intense longing, physiological arousal, lust. When this kind of love is reciprocated it's euphoric, it's like a drug. When the love is not reciprocated its stomach, gut painful feeling, physically hurts. Passionate love is super duper intense. Men tend to fall in passion more quickly, and fall out more quickly. Companionate love: Feel intimate with the person, feel close with them you could tell them everything. But no arousal or longing, you have it with friends. Want to be close and share things with them. can have in marriages when passion has failed after a long time. fatutous love - passion and commitment, passionate relationship but no time for intimacy to develop, shallow relationship, a casual hookup

Sexist humor

People feel more comfortable expressing and testing sexist humor than other types of discriminatory humor. There are ways to confront sexist humor at a low cost to the confronter but it's still difficult to confront because people can say they were just joking. Expose to sexist humor can lead to a histile work enviorment, acceptance of societal sexism, increase in rape proclivity in men high in holstile sexism (would rape if wouldnt get caught), subsequent descrimination and tolerance of discrimination against woman (only works when high in sexism already, normitive context is changed when sexist jokes are said), and after hearing certian types of jokes woman are more liekly yo objectify themself, feel as if their bodies are objects and not tools to change the world. Sexist humor doesn't make people more sexist and hearing a sexist joke doesn't make you more sexist but if you already hold sexist attitudes you feel that in the normative content of that situation you can express your belfies. Most people high in sexism know not to express it, but if they hear sexist jokes before and then have a chance to discriminate they will. Sexist jokes change the idea of what's okay and what's not okay.

Physical attractiveness

People find others more attractive and rate them as more likeable than unattractive people. What is attractive in men and women? For women, large eyes, small nose, high eyebrows, big small large pupils. For men large eyes, prominent cheekbones and large smiles. For cultures with scarce resources/poor people/ hungry people fatness is seen as attractive. For cultures or individuals with abundant resources, slimness is seen as attractive. Beauty standards differ across cultures, yet some people are considered attractive throughout most of the world. Across 27 nations average leg length compared to body is more attractive than longer or shorter legs. Average looks best embody prototypes and are therefore easy for the brain to categorize and process. Perfectly average is easy on the eyes and brain. The effects of attractiveness start pretty early. New Moms pay more attention to attractive newborns. 1970s, gave college students a sheet of a cute 7 year old or ugly 7 year old. They pretested this, clear which was cute and which wasn't. The college students read about a transgression the student committed, and then rate how which the kid should be punished, how serious it was. Attractive 7 year olds transgression was seen as less severe. For the unattractive kid the transgression was seen as huge, need punishment, might be que to future antisocial behavior. Baby face people- people with a baby face have big eyes, round faces, narrow chin with, high eyebrow type, big cheeks. Baby faces are correlated with warmth, more honest, more kind, social confidence boost from baby face. People with a baby face are viewed as less competent and more submissive, rated like children. Men are rated as less competent if they have a baby face, but in reality baby face men are higher achieving than none baby faces. Have to be extra confident to make up for it.

Age prejudice

Peoples perceptions of the elderly are generally kind but frail incompetent and unproductive predispose patronizing behavior. Baby speech makes elderly people to feel less competent and act less capably

Does the internet create intimacy or isolation - arguments

Point: the internet expands communication, and communication enables relationships. Enables us to communicate with people without the limitations of time and distance, efficient networking with family, friends and people we never would have found without the internet. Counterpoint: computer communication lacks the nonverbal cues and physical touches. Electronic messages lack gestures, facial expressions, tones of voice making it easy to misread them. In 1990 25% of people reported that their time online had reduced time with family and friends, number might be considerably higher now. Point: people don't perceive the internet to be isolating, ⅔ of users in 2014 said online communication strengthened their relationships with family and friends. Online looks and location don't matter, your appearance, age, and force don't deter people from identifying shared interests and values so we can see that internet formed relationships are real. Married couples who met one liners were less likely to break up and more satisfied with relationships. Friendships and romantic relations nhsos that originated online are more likely to last longer than 2 years than in person ones. People disclose more when they are online. Counterpoint: internet sexual media, porn, distort people's perceptions of sexual reality which decrease attractiveness to real life partners and can lead to disinhibition and imitation of loveless sexual behaviors. Social benefits are computer mediated communication are constrained by cyberbalkanization in which the internet enables those with hearing loss to network but also enables white supresmiciests to find each other and exacerbate political polarization.

Self perpetuating prejudgments - consequence of prejudice

Prejudice involves preconceived judgments that are inevitable and they guide of attention and memories. these prejudgments effect the way we treat people which leads people to engage kn the self fufiloiing prophecy. the self fulfilling prophecy is a way prejudice is maintained because we treat people the way we expect given our projudiments, they engage in the self fulfilling prophecy and behve in response to how we are treating them, there behavior then concerns styeotypes. we know that not everyone fits stereotypes but they are maintined by the self fulfilling prophecy int he sense that people Behavur in ways that confirm the stereotypes given how we treat them. for example if we have a prejudgement that a place person is aggressive, your gonna treat them in that way (cold way), and then he will be colder and you can then reinforce your belief that blacks are aggressive (man might not actually be aggressive). self perpetuation pre judgments are the same thing but just for yourself. people have ideas on themselves and go into a situation with prejudgments that work in their favor. because of the confirmation bias you are going to seek out information that you already belief so it can be confirmed, try to affirm your prejudgment on yourself. People who accept gender stereotypes of and miss recall their own school grades in stereotype consistent ways women after recalling receiving worst math grades and better our grades then we're actually the case. Ickes 1982 demonstrated this with college age men. The experiments falsely told one member of each pair that the other person was a very friendly person or a very unfriendly person. These two people were left alone in the room for five minutes. Those who expected the person to be unfriendly went out of their way to be friendly, and their friendly behavior elicited a warm response. But those expecting unfriendly people attributed the reciprocal friendliness to their own treatment of him. They afterward expressed more mistrust and dislike for the person and raided his behavior as less friendly. Despite their partners actual friendliness, the negative bias induced the students to see hostilities, they would never have seen it if they hadn't believed it. When people behave in ways that drive from expectations they either engage in subtyping which is accommodating individuals to deviate from one stereotype by thinking of them as exceptions for the rule. or we engage in sub grouping in which we accommodate individuals who deviate from one stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group. Subtypes our expectations to the group, sub groups are acknowledged as a part of the overall diverse group.

Prejudice

Prejudice is a preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members, it is the part that happens in your heart (while stereotype is in your head). Prejudice is a positive or negative feeling/attitude about a person based on their group membership. Some prejudice definitions include positive judgments, but nearly all use prejudice to refer to negative judgments. It's a combination of feelings, inclinations to act and beliefs. If you dislike someone based on their group membership that is prejudiced, but if you dislike them because they are mean to you or annoying that is not prejudice. Negative evaluation's that mark prejudices often supported by social beliefs, called stereotypes.

Proximity (propinquity)

Propinquity has to do with interaction, the more we interact with people the more likely they are to become our friends. #1 predictor of friendship. Festinger 1950 propinquity, shin 2019, romeo and juliet, closeness and attractiveness. Proximity can also breed hostility, most assaults and murders involve people who live close to each other. Proximity is affected by interactions, anticipation of interactions and mere exposure. Interactions - Even more significant than geographic distance is functional distance, how often people's paths cross. Interaction enables people to explore their similarities, to sense once liking another, and to learn more about the other, and to perceive themselves as part of a social unit. And one Study, strangers like each other more the longer they talk for longer. Only half of identical twins recall really liking their twins mate selection even though they would have expected to share their twins' interaction to them because they are similar in so many ways. With repeated exposure to and interaction with someone, our infatuation may fix on almost anyone who has roughly similar characteristics and who reciprocates or affection. Anticipation of interaction - Proximity enables people to discover commonalities enhancing rewards but merely anticipating interaction also boosts liking. anticipating boost liking through the self fulfilling prophecies because if you think your gonna like something, your just gonna like it more. People who expect to date someone else report a higher liking of that person. Anticipatory liking, expecting that someone will be pleasant and compatible, increases the chance of forming a rewarding relationship. With Siblings grandparents, teachers , classmates , coworkers and roommates anticipating to like these people is conducive to a better relationship and happier and more productive living. Mere exposure - Mirror exposure is the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked and rated more positively after someone has been repeatedly exposed to it. Moreland and beach 1992 - field study kinda. Students in a big psychology class, researchers had confederates come into the class 5 min late and walk to the front and face the class and then sit down, had different confederates do this throughout the term. Manipulated how often certain confederates came in. in one condition came in 15 times, one 10, one 5 and one 1. at the end of the term they put one of the people up on stage and said you were in the study, then had them rate how much they like each of the people. Found that people who came in 15 times were rated as much more likeable. You like things and people the more that you see them.

Antecedents of attraction

Proximity, physical attractiveness, similarity

Sexism

Racism and sexism are institutional practices that discriminate even when there is no prejudicial intent. They can be racism without racism and sexism without sexists. An individuals prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people ever given sex or institutional practices even if not motivated by prejudice that subordinate people have been given sex.

Racism

Racism is an individual's prejudicial attitude and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race. Or institutional practices even if not motivated by prejudice that subordinate people of a given race. Racism and sexism are institutional practices that discriminate even when there is no prejudicial intent. They can be racism without racism and sexism without sexists.

Immigrants

Research documents anti-immigrant prejudice among Germans towards turks. Americans towards Latin American immigrants, especially unauthorized immigrants.

Overjustification effect

Result of priming people to help or do something they already do, they will see their actions as externally controlled rather than have an intrinsic individual appeal. People will be less likely to help if actions are externally controlled.

Relationship rewards

Reward theory of attraction - theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and whom we associate with rewarding events. If a relationship has more rewards than costs, people will want to continue it. We also associate people who are rewarding to us with good feelings. The simple theory of attraction that we like those who reward us and those we associate with rewards helps us understand why we feel attracted to those who are warm, trustworthy and responsive. Reward theory also helps explain some influences on attraction Proximity is rewarding, ti costs less time and effort to receive benefits from someone who lives or works close by We like attractive people because we perceive them that they offer desirable traits and because we benefit by associating with them If others have similar opinions, we feel rewarded because we presume that they like us in return. Moreover, those who share our values help validate them. We especially like people if we have successfully converted them to our way of thinking We like to be liked and love to be loved. Thus, liking is usually mutual. We like those who like us.

Passionate love detailed

Romantic love is made by passion and intimacy and fatuous love made by passion and commitment. A sense of longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partners love and are disconsolate on losing it. If reciprocated, someone feels fulfilled and joyful, if not they feel empty and despair. Passionate love preoccupies the lover with thoughts of the other, involving the same reward pathways in the bairin as addiction to substance, increased DA in brain regions associated with reward, caudate. Passionate love is the psychological experience of being biologically aroused by someone we find attractive. Yet, humans can often be subject to the two factor theory of emotion in which emotional arousal caused by an exciting experience or stimulus can often be misattributed as sexual attraction. Being aroused by any source should intensify passionate feelings - provided that the mind is free to attribute some of the arousal to a romantic stimulus. See dutton and aron bridge study 1974. Men tend to fall in love more readily, fall out of love more slowly and are less likely to break up a premarital romance and are the first to say i love you. Once in love, women are typically as emotional as partners and more likely to focus on the intimacy of the friendship and concern for their partner. Passionate love does not go on forever, it eventually simmers and becomes steady once the relationship becomes steady. If a close relationship maintains it will eventually settle into companionate love

Self disclosure

Self disclosure is revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. Companionate relationships are intimate and characterized by self disclosure. It is a good feeling when someone wants to disclose something about themself with you, we like this person more after. We also disclose to those who we like. Disclosure reciprocity effect is the tendency for one's personal intimacy of self disclosure to match/equal the self disclosure rates of the conversational partner. We reveal more to those who have been open with us, we reciprocate. Self disclosure nurtures love, it is gratifying to open up to another person and then receive the trust another implies by being open with us. Women are more willing to self disclose their fears and weaknesses than men are. Love is an overlapping of selfies that is facilitated by connecting, disclosing and identifying with each other. People maintain their individuality but share activities, similarities and are mutually supportive. - self other integration/intertwined self concepts Self disclosure can also escallate closeness in friendships. In a study where one group talked 45 min of small talk and the other were prompted with questions increasing in intimacy, those whole experiences escalating self disclosure ended the hour feeling more close to their conversational partners. These relationships did not have commitment and loyalty yet but the experiment shows how fast a sense of closeness to others can grow given open self disclosure.

Consequences of prejudice

Self perpetuating pre-judgments, discrimination's impact the self fulfilling prophecy, stereotype threat.

Similarity - similarity breeds liking and similarity breeds dislike

Similarity breeds liking - friends, engaged couples and spouses are far more likely than a random pair of people to share common attitudes, values and personality traits. The greater similarity between a husband and wife the less likely divorce is and the happier they are. Similarity attracts is a key selling point and basis for online dating sights. Likeness leads to liking effects can be seen in real life situations Roommates and speed daters: lee and bond 1996- roommate friendships flourish when roommates share values and personality traits, but more so when they perceive their roommates as similar. Perceived similarity also mattered more than actual similarity during speed dating. Strangers: people entering a room of strangers sit closer to those like themselves Babies: 11 month old infants are more likely to choose a studded animal that pretends to eat the same food or worse the same color mittens, suggesting that preference for similarity in others develops very early. mimicry : subtle mimicry fosters fondness Dissimilarity breeds dislike: we have a bias toward assuming that others are like us. We tend to see those we like as being like us. Getting to know someone and discoveringing that the person is actually dissimilar tends to decrease liking. Within their own groups people except similarity, find it very difficult to like someone with dissimilar views. Explains why dating partners and roommates often become more similar over time in their emotional responses to events and in attitudes. "Attitude alignment" helps promote and sustain close relationships, and also can lead partners to overestimate either attitude similarities. Whether people perceive members of another race as similar or dissimilar influences their racial attitudes. "Cultural racism" persists because cultural differences are a fact of life. Rather than trying to eliminate cultural differences we should better appreciate what they contribute to the multicultural nature of society.

How does love develop? How is it maintained

Social exchange theory, attachment styles and misattribution of arousal can play a role (you might actually be feeling something else, attracted to someone else for another reason but you are misattributing your physiological stimulation to a person when it could be caused by another environmental factor. Dutton and Aron bridge. Equity and self disclosure also enable love

Social sources of prejudice

Social inequalities, socialization, institutional support, conformity

Institutional support - social sources of prejudice

Social institutions like schools, government, media and families may be prejudiced or support policies like segregation or possibly reinforcing the status quo. Media strengthen stereotypes, exposure to news portrayals of Muslim terrorist was associated with an increased perceptions of Muslim as aggressive, and increase support for military action in Muslim territories and muslim harming polcies. Institutional support for prejudice is often unintended or noticed. Researchers suspect that the visual prominence given to faces and women's bodies perpetuates gender bias - faceism.

Confronting one's own bias

Some interventions work immediately like showing people counterstereotypic exemplars like black people who are non aggressive leaders. Vivid counter stereotypes like a story of when black people did not fit into their stereotype. Priming multiculturalism is another tactic. These work but only in the short term. Recent study by Lai in 2016 with 6321 participants found that none of the nine interventions said to work immediately were effective hours to days later. Contact hypothesis: created by gordon alport 1954, the nature of prejudice. said that the more contact you have with a group the more your going to like them. there were conditions that needed to be set for the theory to work. enduring consistent contact, equal status, goal directed work and institutional support all are needed. Alport found that contact works will reduce prejudice but all of these 4 conditions must be met which is really hard to do, especially equal status in the 60s. moreover, people want to be around those that look similar to them because it makes them feel comfortable and it is difficult because people don't want to take the risk of true contact and threatening status. Hard to motivate people to want diversity and contact but if you can get people to have interactions and becomes friends. in terms of helping, empathy is an intervention to reduce bias. Stay vigilant: the main takeaway is that if you want to be less biased, you have to personally work on it.

Social norm theory of helping

Sometimes we help because norms, which are what we touch, are social expectations and prescribe the right / proper behavior. Reciprocity norms: If you help others it will increase your chances that they help you in the future. We invest in other people expecting that they will help us later. People talk about the reciprocity norm being evolutionary based, individually it would be really hard to survive without help. Can be direct or indirect and public or private. In one study, people were more willing to pledge to an experimental confederates charity if the confederate had done a small favor for them earlier, especially when their reciprocation was made known to the confederate. Reciprocity within social networks defines social capital which is the mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network that helps keep a community healthy. Support should supplement, not substitute others actions. We should offer children and your friends support but not so much that we undermine their sense of confidence. When people can't reciprocate, they may feel threatened/demeaned by accepting help. People high in self esteem are often reluctant to ask for help. Social responsibility norm: Idea that people help those that are dependent on them, even if unlikely to reciprocate. People help kids, disabled people, classmates - have a classmate who asks for notes, big difference if you wanna give ur notes to someone who is hungover and slept in versus someone who has covid and fever- has to do with social responsibility. Responses are tied to social responsibility and attributions. If we attribute the need for help to be due to an uncontrollable reason we will help but if we attribute it to a person's choices it's the person's own fault which doesn't require us to help. According to Rudolph attributions and helping model 2004, if you attributions evoke sympathy it will motivate helping. If attribution is external/ uncontrollable by person, myopathy is felt which leads to helping. If the attribution is internal/controllable by the person, no sympathy is felt so no helping occurs.

Distinctive events foster illusory correlations:

Stereotypes assume a correlation between group membership and individuals presumed characteristics. Sometimes tentativeness to unusual occurrences creates illusory correlations. Because we are sensitive to distinctive events, the co-occurrence of two events is especially noticeable - more noticeable than each of the times the events did not occur together. Hamilton and Gifford 1979 demonstrated illusory correlation. They showed student slides in which various people members of Group A or Group B were said to have done something desirable or undesirable. Twice as many statements describe members of group a as group b but both groups did nine desirable acts for every for undesirable behaviors. Since both group B and the undesirable acts were less frequent, their co-occurrence wasn't an unusual combination which caught people's attention. The groups therefore overestimated the frequency with which the minority group a acted undesirably and the judge group a more harshly. Group a members outnumber Group B members two the one yet Group B members committed undesirable acts in the same proportion as Group A members. Moreover the students had no pre-existing biases for Group B and they received information more systematically than daily experience ever offers. Researchers agree that illusory correlation occurs and provides yet another source for the formation of racial stereotypes. The features that most distinguished minority groups from a majority group are those that become associated with it. Even a single co-occurrence of an unusual act by someone in an atypical group can embed illusory correlation in people's minds. This enables mass media to feed illusory correlations. When is self-described homosexual person murders or sexually abuses as someone, homosexuality is mentioned. When a heterosexual person does the same their sexual orientation is never mentioned. Reporting adds to the illusion of a large correlation between violent tendencies and homosexuality or mental hospitalization. In reality we do have pre-existing biases. Further research revealed that our pre-existing stereotypes can lead us to see correlations that aren't there. Becker (2010). Invited university students to view a white and a black face one angry and one night for 1/10 of a second. The participant's subsequent recollections of what they had viewed revealed racial bias. 34% of people revealed that white anger flowed to neutral black faces more readily than black anger flowed to neutral white faces. This shows how in-group bias influences perceptions because people more often miscall the black face rather than the white face as angry.

Do stereotypes bias judgments of individuals

Stereotypes bias judgments but our stereotypes mostly reflect reality. After someone knows a person, stereotypes about them have minimal impact on judgments about that person. People sometimes maintain general prejudices without applying to prejudice to particular individuals who they know and respect, common with celebrities. People often believe stereotypes but ignore them when given personalized information about someone. We know the gender stereotypes are strong yet they have a little effect on judgments of work attributed to a man or women. people may have strong gender stereotypes but ignore them when judging individuals they meet or learn about. Yet strong stereotypes to color our judgment of individuals. Even When a strong gender stereotype is known to be irrelevant it has an irresistible force. Strong stereotypes impact everyday life as Men and women endorse hostile sexism and behave more negatively towards female partners and experience less relationship satisfaction. Stereotypes bias interpretation - when told two people had an altercation people perceive it as a fistfight and it involves two lumberjacks but a verbal spaght if involving two married counselors. Sometimes we make judgments or begin interacting with someone with little to go on but our stereotype. In these cases stereotypes can strongly bias or interpretations and memories of people. White psychiatric nurses put white and black patients in physical restraints equally often but they restrained incoming black patients more often than their white counterparts. With nothing else to go on stereotypes matter. When stereotypes are strong in the information like someone is ambiguous, stereotypes can suddenly bias the judgments of individuals. We evaluate people more extremely when their behavior violates stereotypes. A woman who yells at someone calling in front of her in a movie line seems more assertive than a male who reacts similarly so we can see that perceptions can be influenced by gender.

Changing discrimination

Stereotyping and implicit bias are normal cognitive processes, but we are responsible for controlling out biases. We can override automatic thoughts and out behavior. Stereotypes stream from our head but we have a decision on whether to apply them or not which is less automatic. The applications of our stereotypes and therefore our behavior are not automatic and we can work on being responsible for controlling our biases. To fight bias we need to be active, if we don't want to change our behavior it won't change. Devine 1989 says that prejudice is just like any other habit so we need to be aware of it. Being aware of bias is not the decrease bias but it is the first step. We need to override the aurotrmaticallt activated stereotype responses and catch yourself making generalizations. These generalizations and automatic stereotypes need to be overrode with behavior that represents your personal values, one of which needs to be egalitarianism because you don't believe everyone is equal; you don't have the motivation to change and control your biases. Devine 2012. What divine calls the prejudiced habit isn't easy to break. But it can be done. Looked at 17 interventions for reducing unintended prejudices and more than 17,000 individuals. Eight interventions proved effective, especially giving people experiences with vivid positive examples of Black people who countered stereotypes. A similar technique with people going to door to door and having 10 minute nonjudgmental conversations also work to reduce prejudiced against transgender individuals. And another study DeVine and her colleagues raise the awareness and concern of willing volunteers and train them to replace bias with unbiased knee-jerk responses. Throughout the two-year study follow up. Participants in the experimental intervention condition displayed reduced implicit prejudices.

Stereotype

Stereotyping is a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of a group, regardless of actual variation among members. Knowing a stereotype doesn't make you prejudiced, means you're in the know and knowing a stereotype doesn't mean that you endorse it but stereotypes you do endorse are your personal beliefs. They are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate and resistant to new information, and sometimes accurate. The inherent problem with stereotypes is that when you categorize people into a group, you don't differentiate between individuals. This lack of differentiation can lead to feelings of inadequacy if people don't live up to the stereotypes set on them. Stereotypes are especially strong when we have strong views about group differences, like women are superior at reading others minds, that are beliefs that exaggerate reality. They can be positive or negative. Positive stereotypes would be the woman are wonderful; pehmoneon in which women are rated nicer in general or that asian Americans are considered the model minority. Stereotypes can also be descriptive and used to describe categories like women are nurturing or a behavior like asian americans should be good at math, these help imply what a member of a stereotypes group should look/act like. The route of prejudice and discrimination is steryotying, steryeotyping has to happen first because you need to have amde assoasiations between groups and certain group characteristics. Stereotypes are culturally transmitted through things like media and family.

How does stereotype threat undermine performance?

Stress- Brain scan suggests that the stress of stereotype threat impairs brain activity associated with mathematical processing and increases activity in areas associated with the motion processing. Self monitoring - worrying about making mistakes to straps focus attention. Suppressing unwanted threats can and emotions- the effort required to regulate one's thinking takes energy and disrupts working memory. Stereotypes can disrupt performance by positive stereotypes can facilitate performance.

Gender stereotypes

Strong gender stereotypes exist and are often accepted by members of the stereotyped group. In 2017, a survey showed that 87% of Americans agreed that men and women are basically different and how they express their feelings. Stereotypes are not always wrong or not always exaggerate differences. Janet 1994 discovered that Penn state students' stereotypes of men and women's restlessness, nonverbal sensitivity, aggressiveness were reasonable approximations of actual gender differences. Gender stereotypes have persisted across time in culture, over decades while Americans have become more supportive of equal work roles for women and men, their beliefs about different traits of women and men have endured.

Companionate love detailed

The affection we feel for those whom our lives are deeply intertwined. Companionate love is a deep, affectionate attachment and unlike passionate love it can last a lifetime. When the initial passionate high settles into a more stable and affectionate relationship companionate love is reached. Rubin's love between partners in arranged or love marriages in jaipur, india. The cooling of passionate love over time and the growing importance of other factors like shared value can be seen in those who enter arranged marriages versus love based marriages in india. Those who married for love reported diminishing feelings of love after a 5 year newlywed period. By contrast, those in arranged marriages reported more love after 5 years.

Love styles

The basic theories people have about love that guide their behavior in relationships. People don't necessarily verbalize these but they really impact relationships. Eros - passionate, physical love. A Partner's physical appearance is super important. Erotic lovers get incolved in relationships quickly, have very intense relationships. Strong physical attraction measures eros love. Ludus - love is played as a game, never taken too seriously. It is fun and lighthearted shouldn't be taken seriously. Ludus lovers aren't trying to cause harm but they inadvertently do. Might have multiple partners at one because it's not serious. Tend to move in and out of relationships quickly. Storge - slow-growing love, evolving out of affection and friendship. Storic lovers think that similarity is important. In long term relationships for storic lovers the important thought is you're going to grow old and have children with the people. Pragma - pragmatic love - commonsensical, realistic, feet-on-the-ground. Pragmatic lovers care about the rewards that come out of a relationship. Consider what he or she is going to become before i commit myself Mania - highly emotional rollercoaster ride of love. Manic lovers obsess about partners, are possessive, fear regaction. If a person doesn't reciprocate they get really upset. When partner doesn't pay attention you feel sick Agape - selfless, giving love - think about what they can do for the partner, not for themself. They aren't happy unless their partner is happy. I would rather break up with my partner then stand in their way

Equity enables close relationships

The equality principle of attraction is that what you and your partner get out of a relationship should be proportional to what you each put in it. If two people recieve equal outcomes, they should contribute equally otherwise one or the other will feel it is unfair. In long term relationships are unconcerned with short term equity because with loved ones we don't need or expect "repayment". Yet, people who perceive their relationship is inequitable feel discomfort. The one who has the better deal may feel guilty and the one who does more may feel irritated. Perceived inequality triggers marital distress but marital distress also exacerbates perception of inequity.

In-group bias

The group definition of who you are, your gender, race, religion, marital status, academic major exemplifies the definition of who you're not. The experience of being forced into groups may promote ingroup bias which is a tendency to favor one's own group. These groups can support positive self-concept as in which when our group is successful, we make herself feel better by identifying more strongly with it. In group bias also feeds favoritism as we are so group conscious. We will even form conspicuous groups with no logical bias as can be seen in tajfel and Billins 1974 experiments when they had students say which painting they like more. Even without meeting other members of the group that like the same painting, they would divide up money among the members and give more to people who were in their same group. Defining groups even in this trivial way produced in groups face favoritism as summarized by Wilder in 1981 when given the opportunity to divide five points worth of money subjects generally award nine or 10 points to their own group and 5 to 6 points to the other group. We are more prone to in group bias when our group is small and diverse in status from the outgroup. When we are in a group, we think less about it. Positive feelings for our own group are not mirrored by equally strong negative feelings for out groups. Bias is less a matter of dislike towards people who are different from us and more a matter of mutual support and love for people who are the same, in group members. In group bias and discrimination is less of a result of our group hostility then of in group favoritism. There is a strong history of denying human attributes to our group members called infrahumanization.

Socialization - social sources of prejudice

The influence of family socialization appears in children's prejudices, which often are their mothers. Families and cultures passed down all kinds of information. Parental attitudes assessed shortly after the babies are born and predict their children's attitudes seven years later. The authoritarian personality - Adorno 1950- discovered that hostility toward Jews often coexisted with hostility toward other minorities. Those who are strongly prejudiced, prejudiced appeared to be an entire way of thinking about those who are different or marginalized. These people were labeled as ethnocentric people, they believed in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and had a corresponding disdain for all other groups. These people shared an intolerance for weakness, punitive attitude and a submissive respect for their groups authorities. People with these tendencies were labeled as people with a prejudiced prone authoritarian personality. A personality that is disposed to favor obedience and to authority and intolerance about other groups and those lowered status. Prejudice exists today still and people know this is why white women often feel threatened by someone who displays racism and by men of color for someone who displays sexism. Research shows that people with authoritarian personalities in childhood usually desire vengeance, to humanize the enemy and seek a sense of control. Both people on the left and right expressed similar tolerance of groups with values and beliefs unlike their own. The insecurity of authoritarian individuals predisposes them toward an excessive concern with power and status and an inflexible right/wrong way of thinking that makes them difficult to tolerate. They have a tendency to be submissive towards people with power over them and punitive towards those they consider to be lower in status.

Sexism: benevolent and hostile

The percentage of Americans willing to vote for a female presidential candidate has parallel to the increasing percentage willing to vote for a black candidate. In 1967 67% of first year American college students agreed that "the activities of married women are best confined to the home and family" in 2000 to only 22% agreed. Alice eagly 1991 and haddock and zanna 1994 reported that people don't respond to women with gut level negative emotions as they do certain other groups. Most people like women more than men. They perceive women as more understanding, kind and helpful. Eagly referred to this favorable stereotype as the woman with a wonderful effect. glick, fiske 1996, 2007, 2011- gender attitudes are often ambivalent. Gender attitudes frequently mix with benevolent sexism, (women have superior moral sensibility) with hostile sexism (once a man commits she puts him on a tight leash). Benevolent sexism sounds positive "women deserve protection" but it still may impede gender inequality by discouraging the hiring of women and traditionally male dominated.

Experiences of breaking up

The person that gets broken up with "breakers" usually does the worst psychologically. The person that does the breaking up "breakers" do best psychologically because they have control. A mutual breakup is the best way to end a relationship. The role you play in a breakup predicts the outcome, if you try and end a relationship mutually, even if you are the one that wants to break up, it is a very gentle and kind thing to do because they will psychologically fare better. Make them think they have control and that it is mutual, help them realize it isn't going to work out.

The physical attractiveness stereotype / beautiful is good stereotype - physical attractiveness

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well, what is beautiful is good. Disney princesses, The beautiful is good stereotype is learned early on and there does seem to be a kernel of truth in it. Beautiful people tend to be more socially confident, have better social skills. More popular than less beautiful people, more extroverted. There's more practice looking at an open field situation how much people interact with beautiful versus non beautiful kids. More beautiful kids get more chances to talk to adults. You get practice talking.When observing a photo of someone who was facially disfigured, they were judged as less intelligent, emotionally stable, and trustworthy than a photo of someone after a plastic survey. Train commutators of both sexes avoid sitting next to someone with a facial disfiguration. Both adults and children are biased towards attractive adults. Adults are also biased towards attractive children, fifth grade teachers who were given identical information about students perceived students with attractive images as more intelligent and successful in school. Moreover we assume that beautiful possess certain desirable traits like that they are happier sexually warmer and more outgoing, successful, intelligent but not more honest.

Religion and prejudice

The relationship between religion and racial prejudice is complicated and often paradoxical. It depends how religion is to find. If it is defined as church membership or willingness to superficially agree with traditional religious beliefs, then more religious people have been more racially prejudiced as bigots often rationalize bigotry with religion. yet on the other hand if we assess the depth of religious commitment in other ways, then a very devout often less prejudiced. There are three possible explanations for the correlation between religion and prejudice, one is that there is no casual correlation, the second is that prejudice causes a religion as people who feel hatred they use religion or even God to justify their contempt for each other and the third is a religion causes prejudice by leading people to believe that because all individuals possess free well, impoverished minorities have themselves to blame for their status and the gay lesbians choose their orientation. faithful church attenders are often less prejudiced. Intrinsically religious people are less prejudiced as found by Allport and Ross in 1967. Clergies are also less prejudiced. Protestant ministers and Roman Catholic priests gave more support to the US civil rights movement than the majority of other people.

Social exchange theory

The special exchange theory looks at equity and cost versus reward, while considering investments, in a relationship. There is a cost involved in relationships so one has to find the balance between what we give and what we get. The rewards in a relationship are companionship, sex, attention or status. Costs can be money, or always going to his house versus yours, always doing what they want to do. The social exchange theory says that when people decide if a relationship is worth it they look at costs and rewards. People stay in relationships when the rewards outweigh the costs. In the beginning of a relationship people focus on rewards, but after 6 months they tend to see the costs. Relationships are sometimes maintained because of investments that were made like children, properties and land. People are more incentivized to stay in a relationship even if the costs outweigh benefits to please investments. Social exchange theory also accounts for two types of relationships. Communal and exchange relationships. Exchange relationships - Someone is paying close attention to costs and rewards and you are keeping track of who is contributing to what and how much. expectation that the other side will reciprocate your efforts. A communal relationship is when people give and sacrifice regardless of if you get paid back because things need to be done for a relationship to be maintained. You do what you need to keep the relationship going, the basis of actions is concern for another's welfare. A parent and child relationship is communal.

The matching phenomenon - physical attractiveness

The tendency for men and women to choose partners who are a good match and attractiveness and other traits. Studies have found a strong correspondence between the rated attractiveness of her husbands and wives, dating partners and even those with in particular fraternities. People tend to select friends and especially to marry people who are a good match not only to the level of intelligence, popularity and self-worth and also to the level of attractiveness. the matching phenomenon usually references the same quality between partners, usually attractiveness. In Online dating men who advertise their income and education and women who advertise their youth and looks receive more responses. This asset matching process helps explain why beautiful young women often marry older men of higher social status.

Tendency to like those who like us

Those told that certain others like or admire them usually feel a reciprocal affection. Thinking that someone probably likes you - but you aren't sure - tends to increase your thinking about and attraction to another. When we are judging ourselves or others, negative infmroation carries more weight because it is less usual so it garners more attention. Hence, the baumeister bad is stronger than good study results. Attribution: our reactions to someone or an event depend on our attributions. If we attribute flattery to integration which is the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor, both the flatterer and the praise lose appeal. We often perceive criticism to be more sincere than praise because it rarely stems from an ulterior motive that benefits the critquor. Constant approval can lose value as a loved one that someone constantly flatters is hard to reward because they are used to it but easy to hurt. In most social interactions we suppress negative feelings, so people sometimes receive no corrective feedback. The happies of dating and married couples see their partner in a more positive light than the partner saw themself. When we are in love we are biased to find those we love not only physically attractive but also socially attractive, and we're happy to have our partners view us with similar positive bias. Most satisfied married couples tend to idealize one another as newlyweds and to approach problems without immediately criticizing their partners and finding fault.

Sternberg's love triangle

Three basic ingredients: Intimacy: feelings of being close and bonded - Passion: the "hot" part - arousal and sexual attraction - Commitment: short and long term - your going to do what needs to be done to maintain that love Different types of love are created with different combinations. Intimacy and passion is romantic love. Intimacy and commitment would be companionable love. If you have passion and commitment but no intimacy it is fatuous love, someone you're hooking up with and committed to but don't feel close to the person. Sternberg says that all three of these together make consummate love. Sternberg looked at the % of married couples who have consummate love. It is a very small percentage. It is a positive allusion, people think things will be better off in their relationship then that actually are. People see consummate love as the ideal and that they have it. In real life you find all three in long term relationships but passion ebbs and flows, the other two are pretty constant. There's a lot of passion when you get married, less passion when you have babies. When kids go off to college and parents have more time together they find either an increase in passion or diviorce. More time to focus on eachother or have gotten kids through growing up. People assume they are going to have all three factors, it is a positive allusion.

Information processing / stereotypes

We are bombarded with information and stimulus every minute of our existence so our brain is constantly sorting things out, figuring out what to pay attention to and what we can ignore. Processing every single piece of information that's coming in would be overwhelming. We have evolved an ability to sort through and categorize things helping us function, our primitive fight or flight response. these categorization has cognitive benefits because it simplifies what our mind is responsible to process. Our brain has to quickly sort through and categorize information and stimulus for us to function and that (automatic processing) is very helpful and necessary to function as it helps save cognitive resources. We seek patterns so we categorize things and people which can be very helpful but also unhelpful. These groupings and categorizations of people are stereotypes, which is the cognitive component of information processing that happens in our heads. Negative stereotypes that are unhelpful arise because stereotypes are often right, but not always right because we make mistakes when generalizing people. categorization also had evolutionary benefits which some say are still helpful, fight or flight. categorize things as familiar and not dangerous or unfamiliar and dangerous. we have a tendency to simplify things through categorization which can create stereotypes and bias because it is an overgeneralization. like in the shooter bias study, no matter what skin color someone has if you have a gun your more likely to shoot them which is okay, but we often make mistakes given out implicit biases and shoot an unarmed black man because we see him as dangerous.

Why are inaccurate stereotypes maintained?

We have all met people who dont fit a stereotype yet these stereotypes continue to exist. This is due to three factors, expectancy confirmation, self fulfilling beliefs and subtyping. Expectancy confirmation is a cognitive explanation, we have an expectancy/stereotype about how people should be and we pay more attention to people and behaviors that fill/confirm those expectation and we actively look for behaviors that confirm are expectations Self fulfilling beliefs theory was developed by word, zanna and cooper in 1974. It says that your existing belfies about somebody influence how you are likely to behave/treat them. If you treat somebody in the way you think they should behave they are more likely to behave in that way which confirms the stereotype. Subtyping theory was developed by hewstone in 1989. When people dont fit into a category and therefore don't confirm the stereotype, instead of changing the entire category, they make a subtype for that category. If a woman is not emotional or nruturing, a subtyoe fo her as a buisness woman or a feminist will be created which allows you to keep the bigger category intact by creating a smaller subtype.

likability attraction

We perceive attractive people as likeable and also likeable people as attractive. Sometimes when you like someone more you see them as more attractive over time. When we discover someone's similarities to us it also makes them appear more attractive. The more in love a woman is with a man the more physically attractive she finds him. The more in love people are the less attractive they find all others of the opposite sex.

Cognitive sources of prejudice: categorization

When engaging in spontaneous categorization we do so when we are pressed for time, preoccupied, tired or emotionally aroused. We label people of widely ranging ancestry a simple black or white. Such categorization is not prejudiced but it does provide a foundation for prejudice. Perceived similarities and differences. When we assign people to groups like athletes or majors or professors we are likely to exaggerate similarities within the group and differences between them. This division of groups can create an outgroup in which there is a perception that out group members are more similar to one another than are ingroup members and ingroups are more diverse. Experiments in the United States, Scotland and Germany revealed that people of other races do in fact seem to look more alike than people of our own race. This shows the own race bias in which the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race, also called cross race effect or other race effect. White subjects more accurately recognize the faces of whites than of blacks, black subjects more actually recognize the faces of blacks than whites. Hispanics blacks and Asians recognize the faces of their own race better than others. Infants as young as nine months display their own race recognition of faces. It is not that we cannot perceive differences among other groups, Rather that when looking at a face from another racial group we often attend to their grouping or categorization first like they are black rather than to individual features. Whereas when looking at the face of someone who is in our group we look at their features.

The pain of ostracism and rejection - the need to belong

When we do belong we feel supported by close, intimate relationships and tend to be happier and healthier. Humans in all cultures, whether in schools, workplaces or homes use ostracism to regulate social behavior. And experiments people who are left out of a simple game of volunteers feel deflated and stressed. Ostracism may even be worse than bullying, bullying that is extremely negative at least acknowledges someone's existence of importance, where ostracism treats a person as if they do not exist at all. And several experiments students randomly assigned to be rejected by their peers became more likely to engage in self depleting behavior and less able to regulate behavior. People who were socially rejected by those close to them subsequently drink more alcohol, result of self control breakdown. Ostracism social pain much like physical pain increases aggression.

first impressions

attractiveness most affects first impressions. People rate new products more favorably when they have attractive inventors. Attractive and tall people hold more prestigious jobs and make more money. Roszell 1990- looked at incomes of Canadians who were rated on a 1-5 attractive scale. For each additional scale unit of rated attractiveness, people earned dona verage 1,988$ annually. Frieze 1991 repeated study with mba graduates and found that men earned an additional 2600$ and women 2150$.

evolution and attraction

from an evolutionary perspective attraction is based on reproductive strategy. Men with attractive faces have higher sperm quality, women with hourglass figures have more regular menstrual cycles and are more fertile. David Bush's evolutionary study shows this all. Evolution predisposes women to favor male traits that signify an ability to provide and protect resources. Li 2002- on screen potential mates men require physical attractiveness and women require status and resources, both welcome kindness and intelligence. During ovulation women show increased accuracy in judging a male exual orientation, displaying increased wariness of outgroup men. When ovulating women tend to wear and prefer more repealing outfits than when they are not fertile.

Frustration and aggression the scapegoat theory and motivational sources of prejudice

old theory, has to do with the idea that when people are really frustrated they will find a group to blame that is not responsible for frustration- group thread status theory/group intensity threat makes more sense as an explanation for frustration and aggression, prejudice and discrimination here. in America when people are made aware of the racial shift that will occur with whites being the numeral minority but still holding the power people feel threatened and start to embrace discrimination, feel threatened, and take resources away from outgrip members. people want to protect there own and what they have so they discirminate against other groups. Phenomenon of displaced aggression or scapegoating. contributed to the lynchings and anti balks prejudice of African-Americans in the south after the Civil War. Between 1882 and 1930 more lynchings occurred in the years when cotton prices were low and economic frustration was presumably high. blacks had nothing to do with the low prices but people were mad and fruateraed so something had to pay and be held responsible, taking frustration out on something else. When living standards are rising societies tend to be more open to diversity and the passage of anti-discrimination laws. By contrast individuals who experience no negative emotional response to social threats, mainly children with a genetic disorder, William syndrome, display a notable lack of racial stereotype. No passion means there's no prejudice. Competition can fuel prejudice. Realistic group conflict theory says that prejudice arises from competition between groups competing for scarce resources. And example of this is in the United States concerns about immigrants taking jobs or greatest among those with the lowest income

Social identity theory: feeling superior to others - motivational sources

the social identity theory is that we categorize people, we find it useful to put people including ourselves into categories. We also identify and associate ourselves with certain groups and gain self-esteem by doing so. These groups are in groups which are a group of people that share a sense of belonging and common identity. The third component is that we contrast our groups with other groups ``out groups "and with a favorable bias towards our own and group. Our groups are a group of people that are perceived as distinctively different from or apart from our in group. Feeling like we belong to a group and having a sense of we "strengthens our self-concept and it feels good. We seek not only respect for ourselves but also pride in our groups. Lacking a positive person denies identity, people often seek self-esteem by identifying with a group. This explains why when he disadvantages find pride, security and power and identifying with gangs. When people's personal attributes and social identities are confused they become more willing to die or fight for their group. Personal identity and social identity feed self esteem: When someone has an individual achievement and a self-serving bias they feel of personal identity and pride which leads to self-esteem. When someone has a group achievement and holes in your bias they feel social identity and pride which leads to self-esteem.

Social inequalities - social sources of prejudice

unequal status breeds prejudice. Prejudice helps justify the economic and social superiority of those who have love and power. This can be seen in social dominance orientation which is the motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups. People who are socially dominant tend to view people in terms of hierarchies, they like their own social status and prefer being on top. The desire to be on top leads people in high social dominance to embrace prejudice and support political positions that justify prejudice. People in high social dominance orientation often supports politicians that maintain hierarchies. They prefer positions like politics and business to increase their status and maintain the hierarchies. Avoid jobs like social work that disadvantages groups. Frequently expressed negative attitudes towards minority people. Upper class individuals are more likely than those in poverty to see people's fortunes and outcomes that they have earned thanks to skills and effort not a result of connections, money and luck. Vescio 2005 - a man who stereotyped a female subordinate also gave them plenty of praise, but granted fewer resources which undermined their performance and allowed men to maintain their power. In the laboratory patronizing benevolent sexism, statements implying that women as the weaker sex has undermined women's cognitive performance by planting intrusive thoughts of self-doubt preoccupations and decreased self-esteem. With the other groups is competent or as likable but not often as both. We typically respect the competence of those high in status and like those who agree and accept a lower status. When wanting to appear competent people will often downplay their warmth and wanting to appear likable people will downplay their competence.

Social comparison: attraction

what's attractive to a component depends on their comparison standards. Men who have been looking at models tend to see average women and even their wives as less attractive. Watching porn stimulating passionate sex decreases satisfaction with ones own partner. This is present in our self perceptions as well, when viewing a very attractive person of the same gender, people rate themselves as being less attractive than after viewing a ugly person.