Social Psych. Chapter 4: Social Perception
Ambady and colleagues were able to conclude that the thin-sliced impressions formed by their participants were based on meaningful information because A) their ratings of the silent video clips corresponded strongly with the ratings that the instructors received from their actual students at the end of the semester. B) ratings were similar for silent video clips and for the same video clips when shown with audio. C) while the thin-sliced video clips were brief, it took participants a relatively long amount of time to come up with ratings of the instructors they viewed. D) their ratings based on 30-second clips were little different than their ratings based on 6-second clips.
A
Belief perseverance can help explain which of the following? A) Why people who watch news programs that refer to climate change as a hoax remain convinced of that conclusion even in the face of scientific evidence to the contrary. B) Why during jury deliberations it is easier to convince fellow jurors to change their votes from guilty to not guilty than it is to change their minds in the opposite direction. C) Why weather forecasters are better at predicting rainfall totals than snowfall totals. D) all the above
A
It is 10 a.m. and Jamie, an American college student, is dragging himself to his next class to turn in a paper for which he pulled an all-nighter. Through a haze of exhaustion, on the way to class he sees a student slip and fall down. How would Jamie be most likely to interpret the cause of the student's behavior? A) Given what we know about Jamie's current cognitive capacity and cultural background, he will likely assume that the student fell because he or she was clumsy. B) Jamie's attribution will most heavily be influenced by his own personality. C) Jamie would probably attribute the cause to the situation, such as the fact that it was raining and the sidewalks were slippery. D) Jamie would be so tired that he would not make any causal attributions.
A
Ming is from China; Jason is from the United States. Both participate in an experiment in which they take a test, are given feedback, and are told that they did very well. They are then asked to make attributions for their performance. Based on cross-cultural research on the self-serving bias, you would expect that A) Jason, but not Ming, will say that he succeeded due to his high ability. B) neither Ming nor Jason will say that they succeeded due to their high ability. C) both Ming and Jason will say that they succeeded due to their high ability. D) Ming, but not Jason, will say that he succeeded due to his high ability.
A
Suppose that Mischa has found that when she sits in the first row of discussion classes she gets a better participation grade, regardless of how much she actually participates. Her positioning in front of the teacher could have an effect on how large of a role the teacher thinks Mischa has in discussion, due to A) perceptual salience. B) the "what is beautiful is good" schema. C) the two-step process of attribution. D) the teacher's use of schemas.
A
Whereas individuals in Western cultures tend to think more like _______________, individuals in Eastern cultures tend to think more like _______________. A) personality psychologists; social psychologists B) psychologists; sociologists C) children; adults D) introverts; extraverts
A
Which of the following statements about impression management is true? A) It can be a conscious or unconscious process. B) It always involves an effort to depict the self as accurately as possible. C) It is usually counterproductive and "rubs people the wrong way." D) It occurs in person but not during online interactions.
A
Which of the following statements best describes cultural differences in the fundamental attribution error? A) Members of collectivist cultures are more likely to go beyond dispositional explanations, considering information about the situation as well. B) Members of collectivist cultures rarely make dispositional attributions. C) Members of Western cultures rarely make dispositional attributions. D) Members of Western cultures are more likely to go beyond dispositional explanations, considering information about the situation as well.
A
Darwin's evolutionary perspective on nonverbal communication of emotion led him to predict that facial expressions were A) specific to particular cultures B) related to physiological reactions that proved to be a useful way to respond to a particular type of stimulus C) a way to increase, but not decrease input through senses such as vision and smell D) universal across all animal species
B
In Masuda and colleagues' (2008) study of cross-cultural perceptions of emotion A) American participants begin by looking at the peripheral individuals before shifting their attention to the central individuals. B) eye-tracking technology is used to demonstrate that American participants spend less time looking at the peripheral individuals surrounding the central figure than do Japanese participants. C) American participants' perceptions of the central figure's emotional state are significantly influenced by the emotions of the peripheral individuals. D) context has little influence on the social perception processes of the participants.
B
Mr. Rowe and Ms. Dabney meet on a blind date. They get along well until they get into his black convertible to go to a movie. Ms. Dabney is quiet and reserved for the rest of the evening. It turns out that her brother had recently been in a serious accident in that same type of car and seeing it brought up those unwanted emotions. Mr. Rowe assumes that Ms. Dabney has a cold and reserved personality, thereby demonstrating A) a belief in a just world. B) the fundamental attribution error C) perceptual salience. D) insufficient justification.
B
Paul Ekman and Walter Friesen traveled to New Guinea to study the meaning of various facial expressions in the primitive South Fore tribe. What major conclusion did they reach? A) There are nine major emotional expressions. B) The six major emotional expressions appear to be universal. C) Facial expressions are not universal because they have different meanings in different cultures. D) The members of the South Fore used different facial expressions than Westerners to express the same emotion.
B
Research indicates that which of the following candidates would be most likely to win a political election? A) Denise, whose face other people often perceive as indicating a warm personality B) Rudy, whose face is usually seen by others as indicating a cold, calculating, and powerful personality C) Vanessa, who has large eyes, a high forehead, and a small, child-like nose D) Theo, who many people believe is gay just based on his facial appearance
B
What is a major assumption of Kelley's covariation model of attribution? A) People make causal attributions using cultural schemas. B) People gather information to make causal attributions rationally and logically. C) People infer the cause of others' behaviors through introspection. D) We make quick attributions after observing one instance of someone's behavior.
B
Which of the following is the most accurate conclusion based on the Jones and Harris (1967) Castro essay study? A) We are less generous with ourselves when making attributions for negative events than we are when others are the actors. B) We are more likely to make an internal attribution for a chosen action versus a forced action. C) When a target's behavior is forced, perceivers do not attribute it to any sort of internal cause. D) We are more likely to make an internal attribution when the actor in question is perceptually salient.
B
Who among the following individuals would you predict would be most likely to make an external attribution for any given behavior observed? A) an 8-year-old born and raised in India B) a Hong Kong Chinese college student who had just been shown images related to Chinese culture C) a Hong Kong Chinese college student who had just been shown images related to American culture D) a U.S.-born American adult
B
All of the following are examples of an internal attribution except for which one? A) Velma blames her poor grade on her biology exam on the idea that she's never been good at taking multiple-choice exams. B) After winning close to $100 playing poker, Fred explains that he's always been a very skilled gambler. C) Shaggy says that the only reason for his recent van accident is that the road he was traveling on that day was wet from a recent rainfall. D) Daphne thinks that the reason her brother is never able to hold a steady job is that he's lazy and quick to get angry with others.
C
Although he claims to hate reality TV, Simon never misses an episode of Hoarders. Simon's behavior (i.e., watching Hoarders) is A) low in distinctiveness B) low in consensus C) high in distinctiveness D) low in consistency
C
Imagine that you are in Hong Kong reading the morning news and you notice a headline about a double murder that took place overnight. A suspect is in custody. Which of the following headlines is most likely to accompany the story? A) Homicidal Maniac Stalks Innocents B) Bloodthirsty Mobster Takes Revenge C) Dispute over Gambling Debt Ends in Murder D) Crazed Murderer Slays Two
C
In Miller's (1984) cross-cultural investigation of attribution style in the United States and India A) few cultural differences emerged with children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make external attributions and Indians were more likely to make internal attributions. B) among young children, Americans were more likely to make internal attributions and Indians were more likely to make external attributions, but few cultural differences emerged with adult participants. C) few cultural differences emerged with young children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make internal attributions and Indians were more likely to make external attributions. D) among young children, Americans were more likely to make external attributions and Indians were more likely to make internal attributions, but few cultural differences emerged with adult participants.
C
Suppose a certain student, Jake, falls asleep during every chemistry class. Further suppose that Jake is the only one who falls asleep in this class and he falls asleep in all of his other classes. According to Kelley's covariation theory of attribution, how will people explain his behavior? A) Chemistry is really a boring class, because Jake's behavior is high in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and high in consistency. B) It is due to something unusual about this particular class, because his behavior is low in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and high in consistency. C) It is due to something unusual about Jake, because his behavior is low in consensus, low in distinctiveness, and high in consistency. D) It is due to something peculiar about the circumstances on a particular day, because his behavior is high in consensus.
C
Which of the following best illustrates the idea of belief perseverance? A) Gob is quite smitten with Marta when he first gets together with her, but once they begin an exclusive dating relationship he feels that he has made a big mistake. B) Buster was shy and awkward as a young boy and remains much the same now as an adult. C) Michael's first impression of Anne is a negative one and even though he comes to observe her in a variety of scenarios displaying a variety of skills, he remains convinced that she will never amount to very much. D) The first time Lindsay meets Tobias, she is impressed with his intellect and ambition, but quite quickly she comes to sour on him and see him as lazy and ineffectual.
C
Who of the following individuals is most likely to make a self-serving attribution? A) Mariano, a baseball player who has won multiple championships in the past B) LeBron, a basketball player who has been playing since he was very young C) Rory, a golfer in the very early stages of his career D) Roger, a professional tennis player with over a decade of experience
C
Asch's (1946) research on person perception provided evidence for which of the following conclusions? A) There is a primacy effect in social perception. B) First impressions serve as a filter through which subsequently learned information is interpreted. C) Even when the content of information conveyed about two individuals remains the same, the order in which we learn it can have a powerful effect on our impression. D) all the above
D
Research on eye gaze and perception of facial expression indicates that which of the following tends to be most quickly decoded? A) an angry face looking away from us B) a fearful face looking right at us C) a fearful face with eyes closed D) an angry face looking right at us
D
Research using fMRI brain scanning technology indicates which of the following? A) East Asian participants use a greater percentage of their frontal and parietal regions when making judgments than do American participants. B) Social neuroscience data provide no support for the hypothesis that holistic versus analytic thinking styles tend to vary by cultural background. C) Neither East Asian nor American participants are able to overcome their typical, learned ways of attending to (or overlooking) context. D) Participants from both cultures demonstrate greater activation in higher-order cortical regions when asked to perceive objects in a way that is unusual for them.
D
The two-step process of attribution suggests that A) if the attribution process is disrupted at either step, no attribution will be made. B) Americans are less likely than Chinese to commit the fundamental attribution error. C) people first make an external attribution and then correct for dispositional influences. D) people first make an internal attribution and then correct for situational influences.
D
Tracy and Matsumoso's (2008) research on Olympic athletes indicated that the nonverbal expression of shame was A) different for blind athletes than it was for sighted athletes B) more often displayed rather than hidden by athletes from highly individualistic cultures such as the United States C) difficult to distinguish from the nonverbals associated with pride among athletes from more collectivistic cultures such as Japan D) associated with losing for many athletes, but not those from highly individualistic cultures such as the United States
D
Which of the following is not one of the six major emotional expressions examined by Ekman and his colleagues in their influential cross-cultural research on perception of emotions? A) disgust B) anger C) sadness D) embarrassment
D
Which of the following psychological phenomena shows the least cultural variation? A) Self-serving attributions B) Preferences regarding eye contact and personal space C) Fundamental attribution error D) Anger facial expressions
D
attribution theory
a description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior
belief in a just world
a form of defensiveness attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people
covariation model
a theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether the behavior occurs
two-step attribution process
analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution (first step occurs quickly, the second step involves more effort and conscious attention)
6 major emotional expression
anger, happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, sadness
Ekman & Friesen studied preliterate tribe in New Guinea and found evidence that the ability to interpret major emotions is
cross-cultural
display rules
culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display (Japanese: hide negative facial expression with smiles and laughter, American: discourage emotions displayed in men but allow facial displays of emotions in women)
thin-slicing
drawing meaningful conclusions about another person's personality or skills based on an extremely brief sample of behavior
self-serving attributions
explanations for one's success that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors ( I made a good grade because I am smart and good at this subject, I made a bad grade because the exam was hard and unfair)
High Consensus + High Distinctiveness + High Consistency =
external attribution
affect blends
facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion (expression if someone told you something both horrible and inappropriate)
distinctiveness information
information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves the same way to different stimulus (is Hannah the only one that your boss yells at?)
consensus information
information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does (do other people besides Hannah's boss yell at Hannah?)
consistency information
information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances (is Hannah's boss consistently yelling at Hannah?)
Low Consensus + Low Distinctiveness + High Consistency =
internal attribution
Low/High Consensus + Low/High Distinctiveness + Low Consistency =
no attribution
emblems
nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; usually have direct verbal translations (OK hand sign, flipping the bird)
bias blindspot
tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are
internal attribution
the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality
external attribution
the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in a situation
perceptual salience
the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention (2 male students having a conversation with 6 research participants sitting around them at different angles)
social perception
the study of how we form impression of and make inferences about other people
fundamental attribution error
the tendency to over-estimate the extent to which other people's behavior is a result of internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors
belief perseverance
the tendency to stick with an initial judgement even in the face of new information that should prompt us to reconsider
nonverbal communication
the way in which people communicate intentionally or unintentionally without words; facial expressions, tone, gestures, body positions and movements, touch, and gaze
encode
to express or emit nonverbal behavior such as smiling or patting someone on the back
decode
to interpret the meaning of nonverbal behavior that other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness
T/F: it is difficult to make straightforward internal or external attributions when consistency is low
true
T/F: the covariation model assumes that people make causal attributions in a rational and logical way
true
T/F: when consistency is high, specific patterns of consensus and distinctiveness information can permit clear internal attribution
true
primary effect
when it comes to forming impressions, the first traits we perceive in others influences how we view the information that we learn about them later
