Social Psychology Chapters 1 - 14

effort justification

The tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying the time, effort, or money devoted to something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing.

cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that inconsistency between a person's thoughts, sentiments, and actions creates an aversive emotional state (dissonance) that leads to efforts to restore consistency.

system justification theory

The theory that people are motivated to see the existing sociopolitical system as desirable, fair, and legitimate.

self-verification theory

The theory that people sometimes strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about themselves because such self-views give them a sense of coherence and predictability.

In-group heterogeneity

We tend to perceive our in-group members as unique individuals

minimal group paradigm

An experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another.

hypothesis

A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances.

longitudinal study

A study conducted over a long period of time with the same participants.

Halo effect

(Affect heuristic) Favorable or unfavorable feelings color judgments and future expectations about how others will act

agenda control

Efforts of the media to select certain events and topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues and events people think are important.

self-serving attributional bias

The tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to external circumstances and to attribute success and other good events to oneself.

identifiable victim effect

The tendency to be more moved by the vivid plight of a single individual than by a more abstract number of people.

Self-Handicapping

The tendency to engage in self-defeating behavior in order to have an excuse ready should one perform poorly or fail •A strategy for protecting the public self (Impression Management Tactic)

confirmation bias

The tendency to test a proposition by searching for evidence that would support it.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to test an idea by searching for evidence that would support it and ignoring evidence that would contradict it •Can lead to false beliefs because people may fail to attend to disconfirming information •E.g.: Astrology, zodiac signs, personality, and foretelling

self-perception theory

The theory that people come to know their own attitudes by looking at their behaviour and the context in which it occurred and inferring what their attitudes must be.

trait self-esteem

a person's enduring level of self-regard across time (fairly stable over time)

Self-Monitoring Scale

a personality measure that seeks to determine the degree to which a person alters or adjusts their behavior in order to act appropriately in new circumstances

self-concept vs. self-esteem

concept: how we think of ourselves through actions, reflection, & interaction with others esteem: how we feel or value ourselves (evaluation of our self-concept)

Three stages of provocation model

describe how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors collectively contribute to the escalation of aggression

file drawer problem

difficulty encountered when compiling a review of scientific literature because studies showing null results are unlikely to be published

opinion conformity

expressing insincere agreement on important issues Endorsing the person's attitudes and values

state self-esteem

the dynamic, changeable self-evaluations a person experiences as momentary feelings about the self (affected by context)

anxiety dimension of attachment

A facet of attachment that captures the degree to which a person is worried about rejection and abandonment by relationship partners.

(2nd self-serving cognitive bias)

2. People underestimate how many people share their positive traits and overestimate how many others share their negative traits •If positive traits are rare à "I'm so special!!" •If negative traits are common à "What's the big deal?!?!"

superordinate goal

A goal that transcends the interests of any one group and can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together.

investment model of commitment

A model of interpersonal relationships maintaining that three determinants make partners more committed to each other: relationship satisfaction, few alternative partners, and investments in the relationship.

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

A model of persuasion maintaining that there are two different routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. Motivation & ability determine whether central or peripheral processing in response to a persuasive message is used High motivation, high ability --> Central route If either (or both) is lacking --> Peripheral route • For long-lasting attitude change, persuasion through the central route is preferable

Interdependence theory

A model of romantic relationships that suggests stability is predicted by commitment, which is in turn predicted by (1) satisfaction and (2) alternatives When entering a relationship, you are no longer independent; you are interdependent Commitment is an individual's decision to stay in a romantic relationship for the long term • Alternatives is the number and quality of other relationship options if we ended the current relationship • The comparison level of alternatives is a comparison of our current relationship to the next-best relationship you think you could be in • People highly committed engaged in a derogation of alternatives, telling themselves that the alternatives are not great and avoiding temptation

personal distress

A motive for helping others in distress that may arise from a need to reduce one's own distress.

norm of reciprocity

A norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them.

diffusion of responsibility

A reduction of the sense of urgency to help someone in an emergency or dangerous situation, based on the assumption that others who are present will help.

exchange relationship

A relationship in which individuals feel little responsibility toward one another; giving and receiving are governed by concerns about equity and reciprocity. Such relationships are usually short term.

communal relationship

A relationship in which the individuals feel a special responsibility for one another and give and receive according to the principle of need. Such relationships are often long term.

Reproducibility

A study can be duplicated in method and/or analysis

realistic group conflict theory

A theory that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources.

implicit attitude measure

An indirect measure of attitudes that doesn't involve a self-report.

source variables

Answer the "Who" part of the question; characteristics of the person who delivers a persuasive message such as credibility, physical attractiveness, and power

Key Imitation (Social desirable responding - faking good)

Answering in a way to look better than one truly is

Out-groups

Any groups in which we are not members

message characteristics

Aspects, or content, of a persuasive message, including the quality of the evidence and the explicitness of its conclusions.

bystander intervention

Assistance given by a witness to someone in need.

How to consume Science

Be an informed consumer of science Don't believe everything you read! If an effect seems unbelievable, it just might be. Pay attention to sample size How big is the sample? Effects are unreliable if sample size is too low, a 2,000 person study more reliable than a 50 person study. Is the study you are reading the only demonstration of this effect? Have people from other labs replicated this? Did the authors make their data available? Advocate for good research so we can understand more about humans and why they do the things they do

self-compassion

Care for the self without self-enhancing illusions (not self-esteem)

Stage 2 of provocation

Cognitive - Angry thoughts and less empathetic Emotional arousal - Moderate to high Behavioural - Strongly assertive, unyielding, hostile

Stage 3 of provocation

Cognitive - Biased conclusions, no empathy, with illusion of power Emotional arousal - Extremely high Behavioural - Impulsive, explosive, and irresponsible

Stage 1 of provocation

Cognitive - Irritated, but capable of good judgement Emotional arousal - Low to moderate Behavioural - Cautiously assertive with self-control

semantic network

Consists of mental concepts that are connected together by common characteristics

Why a WTH/WTS of .7 is Rated as More Attractive? (waist-to-hip, waist-to-shoulder)

Evolutionary perspective: • Large hips in women suggest a healthy gateway for babies • In men, a small waist indicates aerobic fitness and broad shoulders indicate physical strength

Compliance

Explicit expectation Occurs when you respond favorably to an explicit request by another person

discrimination

Favourable or unfavourable treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group.

Why Are We More Committed to Certain Groups?

Fear of being ostracized Rejection sensitivity: Following group norms because of fear of social rejection and ostracism Social animals developed rejection sensitivity because rejection threatens survival and • The need to belong • Self-esteem • Need for control Conform to group norms to be accepted Rejection hurts: Social pain occurs in the same part of the brain as physical pain

Spin framing

Framing information to be seen as favorable or unfavorable E.g.: "inheritance tax" versus "death tax"

Persuasive arguments (Information influence)

Group discussion exposes members to more persuasive arguments in favor of a consensus opinion than they would have thought of themselves

In-groups

Groups in which we are members such as race, sex, sexual orientation, and chosen groups like college or sports team

Mere Presence Hypothesis

Having other people in the room will increase physiological arousal à helps on easy tasks but hinders on difficult tasks

Parallel heuristics

Heuristics can operate simultaneously--that is, in parallel •E.g.: Illusory correlation •When mental shortcuts all come up with the same false intuition, they can be extremely persuasive. •Research shows how increased media exposure to a tragedy (e.g., a terrorist bombing) can create intuitively appealing but entirely false memories.

social cognition

How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions The study of how people explain, remember, predict, make decisions, and evaluate themselves, other people, and social situations, and why these processes often produce errors

self-enhancement

Implying one's accomplishments are more significant than they really are

What should researchers do to avoid Questionable Research Practices?

Increase disclosure in methods, results, and hypothesis presentation Pre-register hypotheses and studies Data collection rules, analytic strategies Share data Be a responsible scientist regardless of outcome

What Circumstances Make Cooperation More or Less Likely?

Interacting with people repeatedly over time increases cooperation People look for nonverbal cues that someone will cooperate; if they detect such cues, then they will cooperate in turn • A friendly other (i.e., one who smiles warmly, looks trustworthy, etc.) • Similar to oneself • As acting genuinely rather than in calculating manner A person's reputation: Is the person known to be cooperative or competitive? • Reputation: The collective beliefs, evaluations, and impressions people hold about an individual within a social network (Emler, 1994)

self-concept

Is defined by our perception of our qualities, relationships, beliefs, etc The personal summary of who we believe we are; it is the answer to the question, "Who am I?" Changes in a meaningful way as a function of situational characteristics •E.g.: Self as lovable in friendly situations, but self as unlovable in less-friendly situations

nurture

Life circumstances like how people are raised and personal experiences

Victim characteristics

More likely to help friends and family versus strangers We are more likely to help people who we perceive to be in our in-group (Helping someone up who is a fellow fan versus a rival team) How well-dressed the victim is Victims who scream and make their needs known (vs. those who stay silent)

Superordinate goals

Objectives that neither group could achieve without the other's cooperation, used to increase interdependence among group members

Groups

Occur when two or more individuals interact with one another or are joined by a common fate Provide a Sense of Identity Group helps us define our own talents and purpose Social comparisons can help us identify a career path • Different but all valuable contributions to group success **Make us feel safe (people cluster when afraid, but anxious people prefer to cluster with non-anxious people)

Avoidant/fearful attachment style

Parents were consistently bad, Level of anxiety when parent leaves is low, Explores Strange Situation room, Low adult self-esteem, low jealous tendencies

Secure attachment style

Parents were consistently good, Level of anxiety when parent leaves is moderate, Explores Strange Situation room, High adult self-esteem, low jealous tendencies

Anxious/ambivalent attachment style

Parents were inconsistent, Level of anxiety when parent leaves is high, Does not explore Strange Situation room, Low adult self-esteem, high jealous tendencies

Direct, passive, physical aggression

Positioning your car to prevent someone else from changing lanes

modern racism

Prejudice directed at racial groups that exists alongside the rejection of explicitly racist beliefs.

Specificity principle

Proposes that the link between attitudes and behavior is stronger when measured at the same level of specificity •Attitudes are more accurate predictors of behavior when specific attitudes toward specific behaviors are measured •Attitudes are weaker predictors of behavior toward specific attitude objects that do not fit prototypes representing the attitude object category

social identity theory

Proposes that the self-concept is composed of a personal identity and a social identity •Personal characteristics (serious, funny, agreeable, tall) •Social role characteristics (daughter, woman, mother, musician, Catholic)

Survival benefit

Prosocial behaviors help our groups survive (evolutionary perspective) • Social exchange: The evolution of prosocial trading that strengthens the group (Cosmides & Tooby, 1992) • Sharing food with others led to prosocial exchanges (e.g., cooperative hunting, mutual defense, and communal child care) • Trait altruism was naturally selected because it helped living in cooperative groups • Over many generations, selfish loners would die out and generous altruists' genes would dominate the gene pool

altruism

Prosocial behaviour that benefits others without regard to consequences for oneself.

Direct, active, verbal aggression

Putdowns and insults

HARKing

Questionable Research Practice - Formulating hypotheses after research results are known

situationism

Self schema - how people interpret the flow of events depends on which self-schemas are activated

Micro-insults

Rude statements that demean someone's heritage (e.g., refusing to sit next to someone from a minority group in a restaurant)

applied science

Science or research concerned with solving important real-world problems.

basic science

Science or research concerned with trying to understand some phenomenon in its own right, with a view toward using that understanding to build valid theories about the nature of some aspect of the world.

response latency

The amount of time it takes to respond to a stimulus, such as an attitude question.

induced (forced) compliance

Subtly compelling people to behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their beliefs, attitudes, or values in order to elicit dissonance and therefore a change in their original attitudes and values.

Power

The ability to detect an effect that actually exists. Often tied to sample size "I need X number of people to detect an effect" Depends on how big your "effect" or phenomenon of interest is. If large, you need fewer participants If small, you need more participants Most psychological effects are small, so you need a lot of participants Some say 200; others say it depends on what you're studying!

cultural self

The awareness of how culture has influenced the self. This research investigated how such awareness might be related to cultural identification and well-being. ... Culture influences individuals' values and beliefs, belonging to groups, and social relationships Based on assumptions, ways of life, clothing, etc., formed as a member of a culture

descriptive norm

The behaviour exhibited by most people in a given context. The behavior exhibited by most people in a given context; What is commonly done Goes with Injunctive norm

Self-enhancement motivation

The desire to maintain, increase, or protect one's positive self-views

Biological mechanisms of aggression

The goal of aggression is to survive and reproduce

attachment theory

The idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life.

functional distance

The influence of an architectural layout to encourage or inhibit certain activities, including contact between people.

ideomotor action

The phenomenon whereby merely thinking about a behaviour makes performing it more likely.

priming

The presentation of information designed to activate a concept (such as a stereotype) and hence make it accessible. A prime is the stimulus presented to activate the concept in question.

Social contagion

The spontaneous distribution of ideas, attitudes, and behaviors among larger groups of people • Compulsion to join and conform to big crowds (Milgram, Bickman, & Berkowitz, 1969) • The mere presence of a crowd justifies conforming to it • The bigger the crowd, the more compelling it is to join it and conform • Automatic mimicry as a form of social contagion • TV laugh tracks are contagious

regression effect

The statistical tendency, when two variables are imperfectly correlated, for extreme values of one of them to be associated with less extreme values of the other.

self-awareness

The understanding that we are a separate entity from other people and objects in the world •Imitation as an early sign of this. •Babies as young as 72 hrs old imitate others (Meltzoff & Moore, 1987)

People have three characteristics:

They have a basic instinct to categorize They prefer to live in groups Culture teaches the next generation how to think about one group vs. the other (Beliefs often morph into evaluations, judgments, and feelings: Prejudice)

Stockholm syndrome

When hostages develop affection for their captors

conceptual replication

a type of replication of research using different procedures for manipulating or measuring the variables

exact replication

a type of replication of research using the same procedures for manipulating and measuring the variables that were used in the original research

other-enhancement

efforts to make the target person feel good in various ways Praising the person

naricissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption/arrogance (not self-esteem)

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

measures global self-esteem Explicit, direct measures such as a self-report survey with high face validity that is obvious in what it is measuring

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness beliefs about the ability to complete a task or achieve a goal (not self-esteem)

Good research

valid, reliable, and generalizable Good research is open research Materials and data are shared publicly Good research features experimental methods that are strong and isolate a question of interest Good research is adequately "powered" research

Violent video games and aggression

• Aggression goes up with sustained play of violent video games • ↓ Prosocial behavior, such as helping or altruism • ↑ Aggressive thoughts • ↑ Aggressive emotions, especially anger • ↑ Blood pressure and heart rate, physiological responses associated with fighting Aggression increases when the game is played on a big-screen TV and with a gun-shaped controller to shoot avatars • Problem not video games, but the content, context, and style of play • E.g. Jin & Li (2017): Playing video games as a team increases prosocial behavior and cooperation after watching both violent and neutral video games

What Makes Us Physically Attractive?

• Certain physical traits are universally appealing • Evolutionary psychology: If certain physical traits are universally attractive, then these traits come from ancient, inherited instincts • These attraction impulses are unconscious: We prefer certain physical traits despite lack of awareness Bilateral Symmetry, Waist-to-Hips and Waist-to-Shoulders Ratios, Average faces

Liberals vs. Conservatives

• Conservatives have a greater need to manage uncertainty and threat • Thus, conservatives are far more moved by arguments that induce fear and that cast issues in simple black-and-white terms than liberals • Liberals tend to respond to more nuanced, fact-based arguments that appeal to reason rather than strong emotions.

Divorce could be predicted based on four behaviours: (Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse)

• Criticism (being overly critical toward partner) • Defensiveness (refusing to accept responsibility for conflicts) • Stonewalling (withdrawal from partner, refusal to interact emotionally) • Contempt (looking down on one's partner; especially predictive of the relationship ending when contempt from women is directed at men)

Spiral of silence

• Fear of rejection --> people keep silent --> Misperceive a louder opinion as majority opinion --> Become even less likely to express their private opinion Pluralistic ignorance: False impression that others do not share your private perspective, furthering the spiral of silence • Groupthink and the spiral of silence require a brave person willing to speak their mind

Four biological responses to threat

• Fight • Fleeing • Freezing • Tend and befriend

Why Does Similarity Lead to Attraction?

• Similarities decrease arguments between couples • Similar people validate our worldview

Misattribution of arousal

• The misattribution of arousal involves mistaking physiological arousal due to the environment as sexual attraction • It is also known as the excitation transfer effect because we tend to transfer our excitement over the situation to excitement about the other person

Proximity and Mere Exposure

• The proximity (propinquity) effect refers to exposure due to people being in the same physical area • Mere exposure is the tendency to like things and people more, the more we are exposed to them - "Acquired likability through repetition" • The more we know people and the more we're around them, the more we like them

Why Are We Tempted by Informational Social Influence?

• The situation is ambiguous or difficult • Lacking knowledge or competence about the topic • Under pressure to be "correct" • Under informational social influence, thoughts or behaviors more likely to change to conform with social norms Agreement between public conformity (i.e., conforming thoughts or behaviors that are shared with others) and private conformity (i.e., conforming thoughts or behaviors kept to oneself, not shared or observed by others) or internalization • Generational influences are a cultural belief or norm that transcends the replacement of people • Three general conclusions from the auto-kinetic studies: • Uncertainty promotes conformity • Conformity increases over time • Conformity endured even when the origin was gone

Conformity increases when

• The size of the majority increases • The stimuli are more ambiguous • The majority is one's own social in-group • The proportion of women increased No anonymity, expert present, social status tight vs. loose culture

Maximizer

(When there is TMI) Enjoy thinking through all the options and worry about making the wrong choice, so they are more careful May compromise wellbeing

Satisficer

(When there is TMI) Someone who engages in decision-making based on criteria that are "good enough" under the circumstances Perfection is not worth the extra cost

just world hypothesis

(Why would people blame those who are already inflicted with suffering?) People have a need to believe that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get. ■Good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people ■Reassuring; we feel less vulnerable to external factors that influence our life outcomes ■Associated with negative attitudes toward being poor, having disability, etc.

Three categories of aggression

1. Physical or Verbal 2. Direct or Indirect 3. Active or Passive

3 components of attitude

Affective (liking-disliking, positive-negative emotions) Cognitive (knowledge, beliefs, memories) Behavioural (approach-avoid behaviours)

Why are people aggressive? Two categories:

1. Hostile/reactive aggression: Motivated by anger, hostility, aimed at perceived threats, or genuine desire to hurt the other person [Automatic responses (hostile/reactive)] 2. Instrumental/proactive aggression: Motivated by something other than hostility; a thoughtful or reason-based decision to harm others to gain resources, money, self-esteem, or social status [Reasoned, purposeful responses (instrumental/proactive)]

What Motivates People to Help Others? [Prosocial social norms increase helping (e.g. reciprocity norm)]

1. Belief in a just world: The world is a fair place in which good things happen to good people (and bad things happen to bad people) • People help others because they want to "pay it forward" or because "what goes around comes around" • E.g. Rosa Park and bus boycott • Some joined the boycott because they viewed the racist laws as unfair and unjust; they were willing to help because they believed in a just world 2. Social responsibility norm: Each individual has a duty to improve the world by helping those in need • But one must balance helping others with only helping those who actually deserve help

Predictors of attraction

1. Similarity 2. Proximity and mere exposure • aka "acquired likability through repetition" 3. Physiological arousal

Why Are "Averaged" Faces Rated as More Attractive?

1. It could be a procedural artifact: A finding that results from how the experiment was conducted; the average face may tap into the mere exposure effect 2. "Averaged" faces may fit cultural expectations o Increased perceptual and cognitive fluency 3. Averaged faces are symmetrical cues to genetic health

Better-than-average effect (1st self-serving cognitive bias)

1. The finding that most people think they are above average on various personality trait and ability dimensions •Ambiguous (e.g., humorous) than unambiguous (i.e., height) traits •Shifting standards: Judge others as they are on average, judge self at self's best

When do we use heuristics?

1. When we don't have time to think carefully about an issue. 2. When we are overloaded with information. 3. When the issues at stake are not very important. 4. When we have little solid knowledge or information. 5. Interference of emotions and wishful thinking.

Factors promoting frustration: (Frustration-Aggression Theory, Dollard)

1. the amount of satisfaction a person anticipates before a goal is blocked 2. the more completely the person is prevented from achieving a goal 3. the closeness of the individual to achieving the goal 4. the more frequently a person is blocked from achieving the goal.

Common sense and real science

1.When it comes to liking other people, we are attracted to people who are like us. 2.If you were alone in a big city and hurt yourself, you would be more likely to get help if there were 10 people standing nearby rather than one or two. 3.Doing a favor for someone will increase the possibility that they will like you. 4.If someone rewards you for performing an interesting activity (e.g., by paying you money), you'll probably like that activity even more. 5.If you're feeling angry, the best thing to do is "blow off a little steam" by venting some of your hostility. This reduces the chances that you will behave in a far more hostile or aggressive manner in the future.

(3rd self-serving cognitive bias)

3. 3.People attribute their success to their own efforts and attribute their failures to factors outside of their control (Miller & Ross, 1975) People agree with feedback (e.g., tests) that portray them positively and disagree with tests that portray them negatively

social reward

A benefit, such as praise, positive attention, something tangible, or gratitude, that may be gained from helping others and thus serves as a motive for altruistic behaviour.

reciprocal concessions technique

A compliance approach that involves asking someone for a very large favour that will certainly be refused and then following that request with one for a smaller favour (which tends to be seen as a concession the target feels compelled to honour).

foot-in-the-door technique

A compliance approach that involves making an initial small request with which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behaviour of interest.

Implicit Association Test

A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations. •Faster reaction times suggest a stronger connection between whatever mental constructs are being measured •Responding quickly to words pairing self with positive words might indicate higher self-esteem •Widely used, but not without its own issues ("It's not as malleable as mood and not as reliable as a personality trait")

Generational infleunce

A cultural belief or norm that transcends the replacement of people ***• Three general conclusions from the auto-kinetic studies: • Uncertainty promotes conformity • Conformity increases over time • Conformity endured even when the origin was gone

culture of honour

A culture defined by its members' strong concerns about their own and others' reputations, leading to sensitivity to insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any perceived wrong.

rape-prone culture

A culture in which rape tends to be used as an act of war against enemy women, as a ritual act, or as a threat against women to keep them subservient to men.

Avoidance dimension of attachment

A facet of attachment that captures the degree to which a person is comfortable with intimacy and dependence on relationship partners

avoidance dimension of attachment

A facet of attachment that captures the degree to which a person is comfortable with intimacy and dependence on relationship partners.

Anxiety dimension of attachment

A facet of attachment that captures the degree to which a person is worried about rejection and abandonment by relationship partners

Brainstorming (Osborn)

A group approach to problem-solving that emphasizes nonevaluative creative thinking Generate lots of ideas, encourage wild ideas, don't judge any idea, and modify or expand other people's ideas • For successful brainstorming to happen: 1. Use a facilitator to remind everyone of the rules and stay on task 2. Encourage rest periods following intense efforts 3. Begin with members independently writing ideas 4. Embed independent diversity of viewpoints such as by incorporating a "devil's advocate"

Precarious manhood hypothesis

A man's gender identity of strength and toughness is more easily lost in competition, and that such a loss can trigger aggressive behavior to prove manhood

Likert scale

A numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes; a scale that includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme. A numerical scale used to assess attitudes Includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme (E.g. Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neither Disagree, nor Agree, Agree, Strongly Agree)

affect misattribution procedure (AMP)

A priming procedure designed to assess people's implicit associations to different stimuli, including their associations to various ethnic, racial, occupational, and lifestyle groups.

implicit association test (IAT)

A technique for revealing nonconscious attitudes toward different stimuli, particularly groups of people.

attitude

An evaluation of an object in a positive or negative fashion that includes three components: affect, cognition, and behaviour. An inner tendency to judge or evaluate something or someone either positively or negative

peripheral route

A route to persuasion wherein people attend to relatively easy-to-process, superficial cues related to a persuasive message, such as its length or the expertise or attractiveness of the source of the message. Effective --> The effect of rhyme on the persuasiveness of the argument: "If it doesn't fit, you must acquit" estate tax vs death tax **Words conjure powerful images and emotions that can overwhelm our consideration of the facts Low motivation (and/or) low ability --> peripheral route Issue is not personally relevant/ Distracted or fatigued/ Incomplete or hard-to-comprehend message --> Source attractiveness, fame, expertise/ Number and length of arguments/ Consensus affects attitude change

central route

A route to persuasion wherein people think carefully and deliberately about the content of a persuasive message, attending to its logic and the strength of its arguments, as well as to related evidence and principles. Issue is personally relevant/ Knowledgeable in domain --> Quality of argument affects attitude change High motivation, high ability --> Central route • For long-lasting attitude change, persuasion through the central route is preferable

prisoner's dilemma

A situation involving payoffs to two people who must decide whether to cooperate or defect. In the end, trust and cooperation lead to higher joint payoffs than mistrust and defection.

tit-for-tat strategy

A strategy in the prisoner's dilemma game in which the player's first move is cooperative; thereafter, the player mimics the other person's behaviour, whether cooperative or competitive. This strategy fares well when used against other strategies.

Replicability

A study about a phenomenon produces similar results from a previous study of the same phenomenon.

social exchange theory

A theory based on the idea that how people feel about a relationship depends on their assessments of its costs and rewards.

Dual processing

Ability to process information using both intuition and reasoning •What distinguish humans from other species? Fluency of combining both

inclusive fitness

According to evolutionary theory, the fitness of an individual is based on reproductive success and the passing of one's own genes and those of relatives to future generations.

low self-monitors

Act the same way no matter where they are or who is around them; don't care how they "come across"

social rewards motive

Acting altruistically to enjoy the others' positive regard (e.g., praise, positive attention, something tangible, or gratitude) gained from helping others

Discrimination

Actions (behavioural) Unfair behavior toward a particular group or members of a group Ex: When a company does not hire a woman for a job because the company leaders believe a man is a better fit simply because he is a man

Emotion-based approaches to compliance

Aiming at targets mood to attain target compliance Both positive and (some) negative moods can increase rates of compliance Positive moods - (Our mood colors how we interpret events) --> we are more likely to view requests for favors as less intrusive and less threatening when we're in a good mood Mood maintenance: --> people want to maintain a positive mood, so they agree more easily --> It feels good to say yes **Negative moods o Negative state relief hypothesis § The idea that people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, to relieve their negative feelings and feel better about themselves § Guilt --> one of the emotions that increases compliance

kin selection

An evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of one's genetic relatives, even at a cost to one's own survival and reproduction.

prejudice

An attitude or affective response (positive or negative) toward a group and its individual members.

Negativity bias

An automatic tendency to notice and remember negative information better than positive information •"Better safe than sorry" - Bad news or negative traits signal danger

sleeper effect

An effect that occurs when a persuasive message from an unreliable source initially exerts little influence but later causes attitudes to shift.

Optimistic bias

An unrealistic expectation that things will turn out well; people expect they are more likely than the average person to experience positive events; they are less likely than average to experience negative events •E.g.: making commitments in romantic relationships; overestimating the likelihood of donating blood; being over-optimistic about performing well in a test, etc.

mental accessibility

Ease at which ideas come to mind (comes from priming, experience, and heuristics) - leads to intuition

prosocial behavior

Any behavior aimed at helping others, either individually or as a group 1. Helps individuals survive 2. Helps groups survive

Explicit expectations

Are clearly and formally stated; they are not at all subtle 1. Compliance occurs when you respond favorably to an explicit request by another person 2. Obedience occurs when you behave in a particular way (i.e., submit) because someone of higher status/authority has ordered you to do so • More extreme form of compliance • Often accompanied by threat of punishment if you fail to obey

upward counterfactual

Are imagined outcomes that are better than reality, leading to anger or regret •"If only" thoughts

downward counterfactual

Are imagined outcomes that are even worse than reality, like a "silver lining" to a tragedy •"At least" thoughts

message variables

Are the "what" part of the question; personal importance and how the message is delivered

recipient variables

Are the "whom" part of the question; attitude strength, intelligence, personality, self-esteem, and need for cognition

volunteerism

Assistance a person regularly provides to another person or group with no expectation of compensation.

reactive devaluation

Attaching less value to an offer in a negotiation once the opposing group makes it.

Social learning theory

Bandura Culture rewards stereotypes in subtle ways --> Stereotypes are passed from generation to generation Individuals gain rewards by observing and copying social agents (e.g., parents, the media) who send messages about cultural beliefs and expectations

Implicit attitudes

Based on automatic, unconscious beliefs about an attitude object

regional self

Based on where we are from •E.g., last name indicated a person's region in Medieval times •May influence how others perceive us and how we, in turn, perceive ourselves •Quebecers vs. Ontarians

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm others who do not wish to be harmed Aggression includes violent and nonviolent acts such as backstabbing office politics

instrumental aggression

Behaviour intended to harm another in the service of motives other than pure hostility (such as attracting attention, acquiring wealth, or advancing political or ideological causes).

hostile aggression

Behaviour intended to harm another, either physically or psychologically, and motivated by feelings of anger and hostility.

Stereotype

Beliefs (cognitive) A belief that all members of a group have the same characteristics Based on perceived shared physical characteristics, personality traits, behavior, etc. Ex: The belief that women's analytical and mathematical skills are inferior to men's

nature

Biological factors like genetics, hormones, and brain differences

Microaggressions

Brief and "everyday" types of "verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities... that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative slights and insults" (Sue, 2010) Subtle or covert prejudice and discrimination Ex: • Asking an Asian American if he or she were born in Canada • Holding more tightly to a purse when a person of color gets in the elevator

Create stronger romantic bonds:

Capitalizing on the good • Share what's good in your life with your partner, and vice versa • Give your partner the opportunity to respond with engaged enthusiasm Being playful • Preserving playfulness and elements of fun in the relationship Looking on the bright side • Individuals also reported greater relationship satisfaction when their partners idealized them • Relationship benefits of perceiving one's romantic partner through rose-colored glasses appear to hold for all sexual orientations

high self-monitors

Change their behavior all the time depending on the situation; adapt to get what they want •Certain careers, like sales and politics, but can come across as inauthentic

social chameleons

Changing how one acts in different social situations in an attempt to fit in

conformity

Changing one's behaviour or beliefs in response to explicit or implicit pressure (real or imagined) from others.

source characteristics

Characteristics of the person who delivers a persuasive message, such as attractiveness, credibility, and certainty. • The trustworthiness and effectiveness can be increased if: • They take a position that seems opposed to their self-interest • They do not seem to be trying to influence our opinion • They are especially attractive and appealing, at least where our opinions and not our deep-seated attitudes are concerned • They are confident in their assertions because confidence increases their credibility (unless we have reasons to doubt their motives)

audience characteristics

Characteristics of those who receive a persuasive message, including need for cognition, mood, and age.

Indirect, active, physical aggression

Cheating in a competition or hiring a "hitman"

Diffusion of responsibility

Each person in a group feels less accountable to take action because there are other people who can do something

Self-serving cognitive biases

Cognitive distortions enhance our self-concept by making us perceive we are a little better than we objectively are

Reason-based approaches to compliance

Convincing people that complying is the best course of action 1. Reciprocity norm: A norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them --> Even when given something small we may feel obligated by a later request --> Why it works: social norms, feeling obligated quote ("you gave to me, so I give it to you") 2. Reciprocal concessions technique (door-in-the-face) --> "You compromise with me, so I will compromise with you" 3. Foot-in-the-door --> Changes in the person's self-image, "it's just who I am"

Social role theory

Culture reinforces stereotypes Stereotypes form when people observe the roles different kinds of people occupy and assume these people are well suited to those roles Culture trains boys and girls for roles they are expected to fill later in life leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy in adulthood Boys are rewarded for independence and competitiveness Girls are awarded for kindness and gentleness **Gender stereotypes - some of the most pervasive and difficult to overcome

Latane and Darley's (1970) Five-step Model of Helping

EMERGENCY 1. Notice that something is happening. 2. Interpret event as an emergency. 3. Take responsibility for providing help. 4. Decide how to help. 5. Provide help.

Cognitive neoassociation analysis (Berkowitz)

Emotions we feel while frustrated interact with higher-order thought processes regarding goals • Frustration as a consequence of perceiving ourselves as unable to attain our goals • Aggression is an attempt to regain what we feel we are losing • But only when we think we can win; if not, we will flee

Kinship selection

Evolutionary urge to help those with closer genetic relatedness

comparison level for alternatives

Expectations people have about what they can get out of available, alternative relationships.

comparison level

Expectations people have about what they think they deserve or expect to get out of a relationship.

Reciprocal altruism

Expecting that our helpfulness now will be returned in the future • Human are not special • Vampire bats will donate blood to others in need and exclude cheaters from the system

subtyping

Explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole.

Obedience

Explicit expectation Occurs when you behave in a particular way (i.e., submit) because someone of higher status/authority has ordered you to do so • More extreme form of compliance • Often accompanied by threat of punishment if you fail to obey

Indirect, passive, verbal aggression

Failing to defend someone who you know is being accused unfairly

Prejudice

Feelings (affective) ***Emotion-based An emotion-centered attitude (judgment or evaluation) toward people based on their perceived membership in a particular group Ex: When someone feels uncomfortable or even angry that a woman is in a position of power, or any position that the person is more suitable for a man

Why Does Mere Exposure Lead to Liking?

Fluency: • Easier to process information about familiar stimuli • Pleasant feelings associated with more fluent processing Classical conditioning: • Repeated exposure to a stimulus without any negative consequence makes the stimulus more pleasant • Signals that the stimuli is safe and nonthreatening

Affect heuristic

Focuses on mental shortcut influenced by current emotions and used to make decisions •Current emotions drive judgment and decision-making •E.g.: Evaluating job candidates based on how one feels •Acting quickly based on how one feels; beneficial in dangerous situations

outgroup homogeneity effect

The tendency for people to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups.

Direct, passive, verbal aggression

Giving someone the silent treatment to punish that person

ethnocentrism

Glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups.

False Positive Psychology

Having small samples, collecting additional dependent variables, peeking at data, dropping an experimental condition Questionable Research Practice - Not reporting all measures, rounding off p-values, only including data that "worked out"

Negative state relief (personal distress)

Helping decreases emotional distress caused by seeing another person in need But helping behavior increases even when we are in bad mood for other reasons - helping can improve our emotional state Guilt and sadness increase compliance with help requests more than general negative mood • Participants who lied to the experimenter and presumably felt guilty stayed and helped for over an hour compared to participants who did not lie and stayed only about 2 min

Egoistic altruism

Helping others for some kind of personal benefit

reciprocal altruism

Helping others with the expectation that they will probably return the favour in the future.

Minimal group paradigm

Henri Tajfel Experimental paradigm used to investigate the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups Groups are based on meaningless categories to study intergroup dynamics Arbitrary distinctions promote favoritism/discrimination Discrimination reflects the human impulse to survive: Protecting people perceived to be "us" against "them"

Direct, active, physical aggression

Hitting, stabbing, beating

self-perception theory

How do we know the self is social? Our behaviors tell us who we are •People do not always have special, privileged access to their inner thoughts and choices •We watch behaviors and infer internal characteristics - similar to how form impressions of others •How others seem to perceive us is incorporated into our self-concept; if others think we are funny, we incorporate "sense of humor" into the self-concept

The Subjectivity of the Social Situation

Human beings are sense-making creatures; they are constantly interpreting things. How humans will behave in a given situation is not determined by the objective conditions of a situation but rather, how they perceive it (construal).

empathic concern

Identifying with someone in need, including feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing, accompanied by the intention to help the person.

Inoculation effect

If a weak argument is presented against your stated position and you defeat it, you get "immunized" against the argument • The process teaches you how to attack stronger arguments against your position in the future • This model is similar to how a vaccine allows the immune system to learn how to defeat stronger attacks by first defeating a weakened version of a virus If people have not thought about an issue - attitudes formed through the peripheral route - they are susceptible to full-blown attack to their attitude • Easiest person to brainwash is the one whose attitudes and beliefs are acquired through the peripheral route and have never been challenged

Social roles

Implicit expectation Are expectations from a group about how certain people are supposed to look and behave Social roles tell us how to think, feel, and behave in a variety of situations • Social role can profoundly influence behavior, especially under conditions of personal uncertainty by supporting a sense of self • The self can disappear into a social role: Stanford prison study (Zimbardo, 1973)

Conformity

Implicit expectation Occurs when you voluntarily change your behavior or beliefs in response to (mostly) implicit pressure (real or imagined) from others

What Types of Social Influence Exist?

Implicit expectations (unspoken rules enforced by group/social norms (e.g., dress code at different events) - conformity and social roles) Explicit expectations (clearly and formally stated; they are not at all subtle - compliance and obedience)

obedience

In an unequal power relationship, submitting to the demands of the person in authority. Occurs when you behave in a particular way (i.e., submit) because someone of higher status/authority has ordered you to do so; It is a more extreme form of compliance; Often accompanied by some kind of punishment if you fail to obey Behavior lasts only as long as the punishment is available

familiarity

Increases confidence on its validity regardless of its logical merit •William James: "There is nothing so absurd that it cannot be believed as truth if repeated enough" (1980) •E.g.: Conspiracy theories on internet that are repeated endlessly

Intuition vs. Reasoning

Intuition serves as a default mode, making automatic decisions, while reasoning stays in the background and stepping in when needed Intuition is fast but doesn't consider all alternatives; reasoning is slow but considers all choices and consequences •Decision-making & its consequences = Constant trade-off between intuition and reasoning •Two systems are thought to interact seamlessly •E.g. driving Intuition - emotional, associative, autonomous, effortless, implicit, intuitive, quick Reasoning - analytic, rule-directed, controlled, effortful, explicit, reasoned, slow

upward social comparison

Involve comparing ourselves to someone better when we want to improve •Constant comparisons can lead to frustration or depression

downward social comparison

Involve comparing ourselves to someone worse. •It doesn't help us improve, but we can feel better about ourselves.

Ingratiation

Involves increasing liking and attraction through compliments •Praising the person is other-enhancement •Endorsing the person's attitudes and values is opinion conformity (Impression management tactic)

Self-promotion

Involves making positive self-statement to convey competence •Implying one's accomplishments are more significant than they really are is self-enhancement •Taking credit for positive events that had nothing to do with the person is an entitlement (Impression Management Tactic)

self-recognition

Is the ability to visually identify oneself, such as occurs when looking in a mirror •4-month-old infants smile more and look longer at pictures of others than themselves (Rochat & Striano, 2002) •Not a uniquely human capacity •Mirror recognition test (Gordon G. Gallup, 1968)

Planning fallacy

Is unjustified confidence that one's own project, unlike similar projects, will proceed as planned •E.g.: Montreal's Olympic stadium retractable roof

own-race identification bias

The tendency for people to be better able to recognize and distinguish faces from their own race than from other races.

Benefits of self-deception

Less anxiety, less depression, better coping, and life satisfaction

Why is Hazing such an Intimate Part of Social Living?

Maltreatment effects: Hazing elicits social dependency that promotes allegiance to the group Maltreatment --> Confusion --> Uncertainty --> Emotional vulnerability --> Dependency on people who hold power --> Gratitude when needs are met Abusive relationships: "Cycle of abuse" --> Tension, violence, reconciliation, attention, and apologies Victims are reinforced by the final stages and believe the abuser has their best interests at heart

Alcohol and aggression

More than any other drug, alcohol is implicated in aggressive behavior **The alcohol disinhibition hypothesis proposes that alcohol interferes with the brain's inability to suppress violent behavior Lowering anxiety and harming our ability to accurately assess a situation But not always and not the only way that alcohol influences aggression

Recency effect

The disproportionate influence on judgment by information presented last in a body of evidence

Urban overload hypothesis

More people = less helping People in cities avoid social interactions with strangers simply because they are overwhelmed by the number of people they encounter each day (Milgram, 1970) • E.g.: Half of the people in small towns helped someone in pain compared to only 15% in large cities (Amato, 1983)

Positive and negative framing

Negative information draws more attention than positive information. Information framed in negative ways will elicit stronger responses. •In decision making, a loss is more aversive than a missed opportunity.

Fearful attachment

Negative view of self + Negative view of others = Fearful (Avoids social connections in general)

Preoccupied attachment

Negative view of self + Positive view of others = Preoccupied (Anxious and jealous)

Benevolent sexism (benevolent prejudice)

Not all stereotypes are necessarily negative • Some stereotypes include favorable assessments of abilities or positive attitudes toward group members Women are kinder than men, more empathetic, more nurturing, etc. Still assumes that women are the weaker sex.

Pluralistic ignorance

Occurs when people are unsure about what is happening and assume that nothing is wrong because no one else is responding or appears concerned • In ambiguous situations, we look to others to decide how we should act • Influence of pluralistic ignorance is reduced when one sees another's initial expressions of concern

looking-glass self

Other people's reactions to us (their approval or disapproval) can serve as a mirror The idea that we see ourselves through the eyes of other people, either present or imagined, and incorporate their views into our self-concept. In a research conducted with Catholic women, some primed with the image of the Pope. All participants read the same sexually explicit passage. As expected, practicing Catholic women who were exposed to the disapproving countenance of the pope rated themselves more negatively than did those who were exposed to the disapproving face if an unfamiliar man, Presumably for the practicing Catholics, the pope was an especially relevant internal audience.

Microassaults

Overt behaviors that aim to psychologically harm someone (e.g., using sexist or racial slurs)

How to Overcome Social Loafing?

People do not tend to loaf when: 1. Task is difficult 2. Individual contributions are identified 3. The work is perceived as valuable 4. They work with people they know 5. Identification with the group goes up

Optimal margin theory

People feel good with a little bit of self-deception: slight to moderate range of healthy distortions of reality

self-expansion theory

People have a basic motivation to grow, improve, and enhance their self-concept and reach their greatest potential •They expand their self-concept through close social relationships •Psychologically bonding with others leads to incorporation of them into our self-concept including their strengths, resources, and knowledge

motivated confirmation bias

People seek confirmatory information when they want to maintain a certain belief. •For instance, supporters and opponents of the death penalty were found to interpret the same evidence in opposite ways •Psychiatrists persisted on a diagnosis that confirmed their hunch despite contradictory information (Mendel et al., 2011) •The leading cause of "disputes, altercation, and misunderstandings that occur among individuals, groups, and nation" (Nickerson, 1998, p. 175).

Underestimating the Power of Social Influence

People tend to explain behavior in terms of individual personality traits and underestimate the power of social influence in shaping individual behavior. Social psychological researchers have shown time and again that social and environmental situations are usually more powerful than personality differences in determining an individual s behavior.

Dismissing attachment

Positive view of self + Negative view of others = Dismissing (Narcissistic, avoids long-term intimacy)

Secure attachment

Positive view of self + Positive view of others = Secure (Comfortable with intimacy)

Indirect, passive, physical aggression

Refusing to stop the bleeding of an enemy soldier

Similarity-attraction hypothesis

Predicts that people tend to from relationships with others who have the same attitudes, values, interests, and demographics • "Birds of a feather flock together" Assortative mating is the similarity-attraction hypothesis applied specifically to romantic relationships • E.g., the vast majority of people marry people who look and sound similar to themselves Little evidence that opposites attract

Modern racism (contemporary prejudice)

Prejudice directed at minority groups that exists alongside the rejection of explicitly racist beliefs Explicitly valuing equality and respect, but simultaneously opposing social change that would allow equality

Scapegoat theory

Prejudice is the result of one group blaming another innocent group for its problems • E.g., the Nazi party blaming Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, and other groups Leads to frustration-aggression theory • Displace blame and aggress toward the imagined enemy, and develop prejudice as a way to justify actions

Realistic conflict theory (RCT)

Prejudice results from different social groups competing over scarce resources Prejudice results from justifications groups create to determine that their members should receive an unfair amount of limited resources Judging an outgroup negatively legitimizes unfair possession claims and reduces guilt when seizing resources Examples: Colonizers justify taking land from natives who are "savages" practicing the wrong religion or needing to be civilized Prejudice toward immigrants increases when the economy is bad and job are limited

How is Contemporary Prejudice Expressed?

Prejudices are expressed when justifications release suppressed prejudices, which are restrained by beliefs, values, and norms (Crandall & Eshelman, 2003) • If no situational justification for discriminatory action, responses will conform to egalitarian values • If reasonable justification exists, modern prejudices will emerge E.g. White student just as likely to help a fellow black student as a white student but only when the black student had demonstrated sufficient effort

internalization

Private acceptance of a proposition, orientation, or ideology.

Why do groups' productivity or performance decreases?

Process loss: Reduction in effort due to a lack of motivation - social loafing is a big contributor Coordination loss: Lack of cooperation and communication weakens effectiveness Diffusion of responsibility: The individual feels less responsible for the group outcome - increases social loafing • Bystander effect • Among college students, diffusion of responsibility is more likely when the project is big and involved many students, and less likely when students get to grade one another Social loafing was eliminated when participants were led to believe their contributions to the group were identifiable

self-regulation

Processes by which people initiate, alter, and control their behaviour in the pursuit of goals, including the ability to resist short-term rewards that thwart the attainment of long-term goals.

Empath-Altruism Hypothesis

Pure altruism possible under the right circumstances • Empathy is not enough. To help, people must also: • Be capable of helping • Perceive that the help will benefit the person • Perceive our help is more beneficial than someone else's help We help because we care Empathetic concern: Identifying with someone in need, including feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing (i.e., sympathy, compassion), accompanied by the intention to help the person

P-Hacking

Questionable Research Practice - Decisions in design, analysis, and reporting that increase the likelihood of achieving a positive result (And a positive response from editors and reviewers)

Relationship personality

Refers to behavior patterns that describe your habitual interpersonal dynamics with others • Some people are inherently trusting; others tend to be jealous • People can have an "exchange" orientation that expect direct reciprocity versus a "communal" orientation that doesn't involve explicitly tracking things • The most-studied theory of forming and maintaining intimate relationships is attachment theory

external (situational) attribution

Reside outside the person. Situational constraints outside of a person's control; the situation the person is in

internal (dispositional) attribution

Reside within the person. Based on the person's typical personality and conscious choice; they are under person's control **can lead to victim blaming and prejudice •E.g. Overweight, physical handicap, victims of sexual assault and domestic violence

compliance

Responding favourably to an explicit request by another person. Compliance occurs when you respond favourably to an explicit request by another person. Doing a favor, giving to charity, buying a product

Heart rate and aggression (Wadsworth, 1976)

Resting heart rate: A low resting heart rate at 11 years old is a strong predictor of delinquency at 21 years old; outward calm correlates with aggression 1. Less responsiveness to the environment; "Less sensitive to the negative consequences of their behavior" - less likely to develop a moral conscience 2. High sensation-seeking - aggression to excite themselves

metacognition

Secondary thoughts that are reflections on primary thoughts (cognitions).

Adaptive categorization

The instinct to group and label arose because it was a survival benefit People are cognitive misers who adopt mental shortcuts to simplify the world Rely on obvious external characteristics and make very fast decisions

Social identity theory

Self-concept is composed of a personal identity and a social identity Automatic tendency to categorize "us vs. them" groups that supports our self-esteem Consequently we tend to perceive our in-group members as unique individuals (In-group heterogeneity) and perceive out-group members as being the same (Out-group homogeneity) Stereotypes as the only information about out-groups

General Aggression Model (GAM) (Anderson and Bushman, 2002)

Situational variables influence an individual's internal components such as cognition, affect, and arousal • Activation of one of these components produces activation of other components • Violent video games increase aggression by priming aggressive cognitions, increasing arousal, and hostile emotions • Over time, with repeated exposure, these schemas become automated: Readily accessible and activated • Environmental cues such as black uniforms, hot temperature, loud noises, crowding, and pain activate (or prime) preexisting mental and emotional connections • Unpleasant experiences activate brain connections that trigger the impulse either to escape (flee) or attack (fight)

attitude inoculation

Small attacks on people's beliefs that engage their preexisting attitudes, prior commitments, and background knowledge, enabling them to counteract a subsequent larger attack and thus resist persuasion.

How Do Groups Help or Hinder Individual Effort?

Social facilitation: Improved effort and individual performance in the presence of others • The mere presence of others can enhance performance even without a sense of competition ***Presence of others leads to physiological arousal, which strengthens dominant repose. This does 2 things: 1. Better/Faster performance on easy, simple, or well-practiced tasks 2. Worsen/Slower performance on hard, complicated, or new tasks

Others' Presence can Hinder Performance

Social loafing: when people working in a group reduce their individual level of effort • Intentional or on purpose (different from the negative impact of the presence of others) • People put less effort to generate new creative ideas in a group than individually Free riders (slackers): People who gain more benefits from the group than they contribute to the group Social loafing was eliminated when participants were led to believe their contributions to the group were identifiable

How Else Can We Understand Social Influence?

Social psychologists approach the understanding of social influence differently than philosophers, journalists, or the layperson. Social psychologists develop explanations of social influence through experiments in which the variables being studied are carefully controlled.

The Power of Social Influence

Social psychologists have discovered, through rigorous empirical research, that individual behavior is powerfully influenced by the social environment.

Indirect, active, verbal aggression

Spreading mean rumors or negative gossip

Microinvalidations

Statements or behaviors that invalidate the target's feeling on an individual or group level (e.g., telling a person of color that they shouldn't argue about injustice against them)

Admiration prejudice

Stereotype content model High warmth, high competence (high W, high S) (Pride and admiration, ingroup or allies)

Paternalistic prejudice

Stereotype content model High warmth, low competence (high W, low S) (Pity and sympathy, elderly or housewives)

Envious prejudice

Stereotype content model Low warmth, high competence (low W, high S) (Envy and jealousy, Asians or Jews or the rich)

Contemptuous prejudice

Stereotype content model Low warmth, low competence (low W, low S) (Disgust and resentment, the poor or welfare recipients)

anthropology

Studies cultures with observational methods

sociology

Studies groups versus individual groups members

complementarity

The tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from, and complement, their own.

entitlement

Taking credit for positive events that had nothing to do with the person

basking in reflected glory

Taking pride in the accomplishments of other people in one's group, such as when sports fans identify with a winning team. Use of group membership to boost public image and private self-esteem when is beneficial (BIRGing) As our self-esteem is based partly on the status of the various groups to which we belong, we may be tempted to boost the status and fortunes of those groups and their members Ingroup members are evaluated more favorably Desire to give advantages to the ingroup over the outgroup

Norm-based approaches to compliance

Target people's tendency to look to others for guidance about how to behave Effective norm-based appeals: o Letting people know what others are doing also can be used to advance the public good o The power of norms depends on perceived universal endorsement of the norm, and how much people care about the situation/community

Groupthink

Tendency for people in groups to minimize conflict by thinking alike and publicly agreeing with each other (Janis, 1972) Most likely in highly cohesive but isolated groups under stressful situations and a strong, directive, and biased leader To minimize, consult outsiders, criticize your own ideas, and include a devil's advocate Decision making is typically superior in groups (as compared to a lone individual's) • More information • More objectivity

Intuition

The ability to know something quickly based on associations that come automatically to mind: "gut feelings" •Many things can be intuitively processed in parallel at the same time •Sense and react quickly to potential threats •Minimal cognitive effort Comes from mental accessibility Experience is the best teacher of this

Reasoning

The ability to think systematically and carefully consider evidence •Slower and more controlled, purposeful, and based on rules and deduction; performs its operations one at a time—serially •Requires mental effort

Investment model

The amount of time, energy, and resources put into a relationship that would be lost if it ended Combines all three predictors of commitment: 1) Satisfaction (+) 2) Alternatives (-) 3) Investments (+)

social class

The amount of wealth, education, and occupational prestige individuals and their families have.

dehumanization

The attribution of nonhuman characteristics and denial of human qualities to groups other than one's own.

reproductive fitness

The capacity to pass one's genes on to subsequent generations.

naturalistic fallacy

The claim that the way things are is the way they should be.

reputation

The collective beliefs, evaluations, and impressions people hold about an individual within a social network.

halo effect

The common belief (accurate or not) that attractive individuals possess a host of positive qualities beyond their physical appearance.

Primacy effect

The disproportionate influence on judgment by information presented first in a body of evidence •E.g.: "Steve is intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, and envious." vs. "Steve is envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, and intelligent"

Group cohesiveness

The extent of integrity, solidarity, social integration, or unity of a group The degree to which members of a group feel connected to one another (Dion, 2000) Four benefits of cohesiveness: 1. social support, 2. identity, 3. safety and security, and 4. meaningful information

stereotype threat

The fear of confirming the stereotypes that others have about one's group.

Bystander effect

The likelihood of helping in an emergency decreases as the number of people who witness an emergency increases

thought polarization hypothesis

The hypothesis that more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce a more extreme, entrenched attitude.

precarious manhood hypothesis

The idea that a man's gender identity of strength and toughness may be lost under various conditions and that such a loss can trigger aggressive behaviour.

social identity theory

The idea that a person's self-concept and self-esteem derive not only from personal identity and accomplishments, but also from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which the person belongs.

self-validation hypothesis

The idea that feeling confident about our thoughts validates those thoughts, making it more likely that we'll be swayed in their direction.

Principle of noncommon effects

The idea that individuals make attributions by looking for a single factor that seems to account for what occurred •A noncommon factor stands out from the rest of the factors, becomes salient, and is perceived as the most probable cause •E.g. A friend getting married to someone who is mean-spirited, unmotivated, dishonest, and extremely wealthy •Being wealthy is the noncommon factor

Risky shift

The tendency of groups to make riskier or more daring decisions than the average of individuals Group polarization: Initial leanings tend to be made more extreme, either riskier or more conservative, by group discussion • Groups make more extreme decisions than the average of individual decisions • Direction depends on the original leaning before entering the group

equity theory

The idea that people are motivated to pursue fairness, or equity, in their relationships. A relationship is considered equitable when the benefits are proportionate to the effort both people put into it.

negative state relief hypothesis

The idea that people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, to relieve their negative feelings and feel better about themselves. Guilt one of the emotions that increases compliance

reactance theory

The idea that people reassert their prerogatives in response to the unpleasant state of arousal they experience when they believe their freedoms are threatened. We attempt to restore our sense of freedom if we encounter a blatant or coercive persuasive attempt that threatens it

mere exposure effect

The idea that repeated exposure to a stimulus, such as an object or a person, leads to greater liking of the stimulus.

normative social influence

The influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval and other social sanctions (ridicule, barbs, ostracism). •The influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval and other social sanctions (ridicule, barbs, ostracism) and to gain social acceptance • Most likely public conformity and private conformity diverge

informational social influence

The influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct, proper, or effective. Voluntarily conforming to group standards when we are uncertain of the correct answer or behavior is informational social influence ***Agreement between public conformity (i.e., conforming thoughts or behaviors that are shared with others) and private conformity (i.e., conforming thoughts or behaviors kept to oneself, not shared or observed by others) or internalization Public conformity and private conformity converge.

Deindividuation

The loss of individuality when self-awareness is replaced by a social role or a group identity • Deindividuation led to behaviors conforming social roles • Zimbardo guards became cruel and controlling; prisoners self-identified with their numbers and adopted stereotypical prison roles like "the rebel" and "the conformist" Anonymity encourages deindividuation • Decreasing self-awareness increases deindividuation --> Students are less likely to cheat in a room with a mirror facing them • Deindividuation in turn disinhibits customary social restraints Anonymity lowers self-awareness, which leads to deindividuation, causing social disinhibiton

social influence

The many ways people affect one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviour resulting from the comments, actions, or even the mere presence of others. How our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors respond to our social world, including our tendencies to conform to others, follow social rules, and obey authority figures

2 major sources of construals

The need to maintain a positive view of ourselves (the self-esteem approach) and the need to view the world accurately (the social cognition approach) are the most important of our social motives, but they are certainly not the only motives influencing people s thoughts and behaviors.

paired distinctiveness

The pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they occur together.

Relationship satisfaction

The perception of whether a relationship is better or worse than average • Current outcomes is the ratio of rewards to costs • The comparison level is an abstract "average" relationship's good-to-bad ratio • Satisfaction is the difference between our current outcomes and the comparison level • Someone could be dissatisfied even when current outcomes indicate more rewards than costs for as long as these outcomes are inferior to comparison level

Weapons Effect (Berkowitz & LePage, 1967)

The presence of weapons primes aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors Participants were more likely to deliver more retaliatory shocks to a confederate when a weapon was present in the room • More shocks with a gun present in the room than with a badminton racket in the room • The presence of a weapon led participants to cognitively interpret their anger as being triggered by an environmental factor • The presence or possession of a weapon makes aggressive acts more likely but only when people experience anger/frustration

Inclusive fitness

The probability that our genetic heritage will be preserved in our relatives' offspring

Explicit attitudes

The product of controlled, conscious beliefs

contact hypothesis

The proposition that prejudice can be reduced by putting members of majority and minority groups in frequent contact with one another.

Conspicuous consumption

The public display and use of expensive products to impress others •As unsubtle as a male peacock showing off its extravagant feathers to peahens (Impression Management Tactic)

face

The public image of ourself that we want others to believe.

Assortative mating

The similarity-attraction hypothesis applied specifically to romantic relationships

terror management theory (TMT)

The theory that people deal with the potentially crippling anxiety associated with the knowledge of the inevitability of death by striving for symbolic immortality through preserving valued cultural worldviews and believing they have lived up to the culture's standards.

prescriptive norm (injunctive norm)

The way a person is supposed to behave in a given context; also called injunctive norm. The way a person is supposed to behave in a given context; Would have socially sanctioned, often explicitly conveyed (e.g., road signs) Goes with descriptive norm

Testosterone and aggression

There is also a small but positive correlation between aggressive behavior and testosterone in humans Little boys tend to be more aggressive than girls, but aggression peaked in both men and women when they were in their 20s (Archer, 2004) Testosterone positively related to aggressive dominance among female inmates Increases in testosterone to transgender people: Positively related to increased aggressive inclinations, likelihood of becoming sexually aroused, and some spatial abilities • Males much more likely to be involved in violent and criminal behavior • Males also more likely to be the victims of violence

How do you elicit compliance from others?

Three main strategies: Those directed at the head (reason-based approaches) Those directed at the heart (emotion-based approaches) Those based on the power of norms

The Power of Social Interpretation

To understand social influence, it is more important to understand how people perceive and interpret the social world than it is to understand that world objectively. The term construal refers to the world as it is interpreted by the individual.

Stereotype content model

Two categories of judgment: Warmth and competence 1. Perceiving as warm groups that don't compete with us 2. Perceiving as competent groups that are high in status and which have resources

Altruism (Pure altruism)

Unselfish behavior that benefits others without regard to consequences for oneself Helping without expecting anything in return

implicit expectations

Unspoken rules enforced by group/social norms (e.g., dress code at different events) • Everybody knows the "rules" 1. Conformity occurs when you voluntarily change your behavior or beliefs in response to (mostly) implicit pressure (real or imagined) from others 2. Social roles are expectations from a group about how certain people are supposed to look and behave

facial feedback hypothesis

We infer our emotions from what our face is doing

Out-group homogeneity

We tend to perceive out-group members as being the same

self-affirmation theory

We try to impress ourselves in order to preserve our sense of worth and integrity •To make us feel good about ourselves E.g. Holding socially valued attitudes

persuasion

When communication from one person changes the opinions, attitudes, or behavior of another person.

Contact hypothesis

When in direct contact, prejudiced people would encounter real human beings rather than stereotypes, leading to greater mutual understanding and friendship Cross-group friendships benefit both groups and reduce their prejudices ***Decreased prejudice requires four criteria: 1. Groups must be equal in power 2. Members must know each other individually 3. Authority figures must be supportive of positive change 4. Groups must work together toward a common goal --> increased interdependence among group members (Need superordinate goals: objectives that neither group could achieve without the other's cooperation)

Social comparison (Normative influence)

When people compare their opinions with those of others

Ambivalent sexism

When people view "good" women from a benevolent perspective, but hostile to women who fail to meet standards • When someone doesn't meet that stereotype, they are judged harshly • Still restricts what someone should be • Condescending and paternalistic • Women engaging in dominant behavior, a counter-stereotypical behavior, are less liked and less likely to be hired than men • However, this is true only when dominance was expressed explicitly (e.g., direct demands/orders) than when it was expressed implicitly (e.g., eye contact) • Expression of dominance didn't differently affect women and men in terms of their perceived competence • Conclusions: Women leaders are negatively evaluated because of their interpersonal style (rather than competence)

Insufficient vs abundant justification

When the justification is insufficient, it is enough to entice the behavior and to cause attitude change When the justification is abundant, there is little reason to change preexisting attitudes Cheating among sixth graders (Mills, 1958 •Those who cheated to obtain a small reward (inadequate) tended to soften their attitude about cheating more than those who cheated to obtain a large reward (abundant) •Those who refrained from cheating in spite of the temptation of a large reward—a choice that would create a great deal of dissonance—hardened their attitude about cheating to a greater extent than those who refrained in the face of a small reward.

Frustration-aggression theory (Dollard et al., 1939)

When things aren't going our way bc of poor economic conditions, important failures, etc., we become frustrated, which builds tension that must be released, and the outlet is aggression Aggress against weaker targets that can somehow be tied to the problem (to justify prejudice and aggression) • Displace blame and aggress toward the imagined enemy, and develop prejudice as a way to justify actions • People become aggressive as a way of displacing frustration from a blocked goal

Social Psychology Compared with Personality Psychology

When trying to explain social behavior how an individual acts within a social context (in relation to others) personality psychologists explain the behavior in terms of the person s individual character traits. Although social psychologists would agree that personalities do vary, they explain social behavior in terms of the power of the social situation (as it is construed by the individual) to shape how one acts.

Escalation trap

Why Are We More Committed to Certain Groups? (Sunken cost fallacy): Increasing commitment to a failing situation to justify previous investments of time, effort, or resources

Hazing

Why Are We More Committed to Certain Groups? Groups establish arbitrary rituals for new members that may cause physical or emotional harm Initiation rituals strengthen the group's authority • Maltreatment effects: Hazing elicits social dependency that promotes allegiance to the group

Difficult-to-get-into groups are more appealing

Why Are We More Committed to Certain Groups? Easy vs. Difficult access Representative heuristic: "If membership is exclusive, it must be a wonderful group" The initiation effect: The harder it is to join, the more we want to join Effort justification: Reducing dissonance of putting in a lot of effort and wasting time to join a group

too much information (TMI)

Why do our brains make mistakes? •Information overload leads to mental errors •When faced with overwhelming information, the brain evolved an efficient but imperfect solution: Throw most things out and organize the remainder. Specific ways of dealing with TMI: People are cognitive misers who make shortcuts whenever possible to minimize cognitive load •Aiming to avoid mental effort whenever is possible

Evaluation Apprehension Hypothesis

Worry about being judged badly, enhances performance because of our need to be accepted and liked • The presence of blindfolded others does not impair performance

close replication

repeating a previous study without worrying about seemingly irrelevant variations in the method compared to the original; also called an operational replication

Cooperation

• A form of prosocial behavior • When individuals and groups work together toward commonly-agreed goals instead of working separately in competition • Essential to human functioning • But balance should be struck between the desire to cooperate and the desire not to be taken advantage of

One-sided vs. Two-sided Arguments

• How well informed is the audience? If they are well informed, give a two-sided argument If they are not well informed, give a one-sided argument • What is the audience's initial position before the argument? If they are in favor of your argument, give a one-sided argument If they are not in favor or are mixed, give a two-sided argument ending with the counterarguments against the opposition's side last

Why and When Do We Choose to Conform?

• In unfamiliar situations: People are concerned with "correct" behavior People are anxious to fit in Informational conformity (Voluntarily conforming to group standards when we are uncertain of the correct answer or behavior is informational social influence) Normative conformity (The influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval and other social sanctions (ridicule, barbs, ostracism) and to gain social acceptance)

How do you improve the chances of getting help when you need it?

• Make your need clear—"I've twisted my ankle and I can't walk; I need help." • Select a specific person—"You there, can you help me?"

Characteristic beliefs of contemporary prejudice:

• Most forms of prejudice and discrimination don't exist or are rare • Differences in income are due to lack of effort • Their anger and discrimination claims are not justified • "They" seek special favors • "They" get more than they deserve

Irrevocability

•A final (irrevocable) decision leads to dissonance à motivation to reduce it •Gamblers were more confident that their horse would win after (decision final) placing a $2 bet than before placing the bet (Knox & Inkster, 1968) •People who were given a choice between two photographs liked their selection more if it was final versus those who were able to exchange it (Gilbert & Ebert, 2002) This relationship holds also when decision is not final, and people can get out of it •Lowballing (Cialdini et al., 1978) causes dissonance: •a commitment in the form of a down payment was made •anticipation is triggered by making the down payment •dissonance is experienced if the person considers walking away •dissonance can be reduced by the person telling oneself that it's not that much more money

cognitive dissonance theory (self-justification)

•A state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions (ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are psychologically inconsistent •Dissonance is created if a behavior is inconsistent with a preexisting attitude •Tension is unpleasant, and we are motivated to reduce it by: 1)•changing one or both cognitions so that they are consistent 2) •adding additional cognitions to bridge the gap between original ones 3) •changing the preexisting attitude to be consistent with the behavior • "If I'm helping them, it must be because they deserve it"

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

•Attitudes one of three categories of belief that predict behavioral intentions; intentions predict behavior •E.g. Cheating behavior, fitness Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control lead to behavioural intentions, which lead to actual behaviour

Positive illusions

•Beliefs that depart from reality that allows them to remain optimistic •Three kinds of self-deceptions that promote well-being (Taylor et al., 2000): •Illusion of control: We can control our lives more than we actually can •Illusion of optimism: The future is bright •Illusion of meaning: Discover meaning in critical life events

insufficient punishment

•If we use strong punishment to get people to stop doing something they enjoy, they will comply only when the punisher is present (e.g., speeding) and then go right back to doing it again when they are no longer present May be better at inhibiting a behavior. Why? •It can lead to constructing internal justification for not doing the bead behavior - permanent values •"The forbidden toy" (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1969) •Children were told by the experiment to not play with a toy they thought was attractive and given one of two threat conditions •Threat was mild (I would be a little angry) to strong (very angry) •None of the children played with the toy •Children in the mild-threat group rated the toy less attractive and refrained from playing compared to the strong-threat group

Attitudes do NOT perfectly predict behaviour

•In the 1930s, LaPiere found that only 1 of 250 hotels and restaurants refused service to a Chinese couple; 92% of those establishments declared in a later survey that they would not serve Chinese people •Students' attitudes toward cheating did not predict who actually cheated (Corey, 1937) •Positive attitude toward religion did not predict church attendance (Wicker, 1969) Attitudes may conflict with other influences on behavior •Social norms, other conflicting attitudes, and situational factors may also influence behavior •E.g. Attitudes toward global warming and avoiding driving and flying by plane *but behaviors can be good predictors of attitudes

Which is more influential--personality or environment?

•Lewinian equation: B = f(P, E) •Behavior is a function of personality and the environment •P = personality traits like agreeableness and extroversion (i.e., being energetic and loud) •E = certain social environments evoke particular behaviors, such as being still and quiet in a religious ceremony or during a lecture

cognitive dissonance process

•Occurs when we find ourselves acting in a manner that contradicts our beliefs and attitudes •In particular, our conceptions of ourselves as good, decent, wise, and intelligent individuals •To justify our contradictory actions, we tend to change our attitudes or behavior to make them more consistent with our previous behavior Dissonance follows decision making (Make a decision, especially a difficult one, leads to dissonanceCommon way to reduce it: focus on the positive aspects of our choice and the negative aspects of the ones we did not choose) • "If I'm helping them, it must be because they deserve it"

Indirect measures of implicit attitudes

•People are unwilling (due, e.g. social desirability) or can't articulate (are unaware) their attitudes •The Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT) measures reaction time of an association between two stimuli, such as the pairing between an image of an Asian American face and a "positive" or "negative" word for a trait •Shorter latency --> stronger attitudes •The IAT is controversial à rapid mental associations do not necessarily predict prejudiced behavior and whether the IAT results are generalizable to meaningful outcomes

Causal attribution

•Process by which we infer causes of behavior •Significant influence on how we think, feel, and behave in a social situation

Pursuit of Self-Esteem

•Pursuing self-esteem triggers negative behaviors like making excuses, self-sabotage, blaming others, scheming, and cheating •Fragile but high-self-esteem is associated with: •Reluctance to take intelligent risks •Make fewer mistakes from which to learn •Decrease their academic performance •Avoid helpful feedback •Increase prejudice, bullying, and aggression toward others •Improving but not boosting self-esteem! •A little humility may go a long way to building a healthy, resilient, and socially productive self!

Direct approach for explicit attitudes

•Self-report measures: "We ask, you tell" •Assumes people can and are willing to report their attitudes Likert scales and key imitation

The Power of the Situation

•Situations often determine behavior, regardless of an individuals' attributes •Example: Nazi Germany •Were all Nazi soldiers evil people, or were most of them regular people who were following evil orders?

self-justification

•The desire we have to justify our actions, beliefs, and feelings •When we do something, we try to convince ourselves and others that it was a logical, reasonable thing to do •We are motivated to justify our behaviors in a way that makes sense to us at the same time it satisfies our desire to look good to ourselves and to others •This is even more pronounced when our behavior is governed by factors which we are unaware of •E.g., Sam, hypnosis, and trekking to buy alcohol •When the motivation to be right and the motivation to believe we are right collide •How do people who try but fail smoking cessation programs explain their smoking? •What do people do when they break their New Year's resolutions?

Age and mood and persuasion

● Younger people are more persuadable than older people ● Older people may have strong and long-held attitudes ● Children may be most vulnerable to persuasion attempts • Messages are more persuasive when they match the mood of the receiver • E.g., Optimistic messages work best on happy people • However, warning audience a persuasive attempt coming increases their resistance to the message • Teenagers should not drive • Two groups (warning ten minutes before message, no warning) • Greater change in the control group that did not get a warning

consensus

A type of covariation information: whether most people would behave the same way or differently in a given situation.

illusory correlation

The belief that two variables are correlated when in fact they are not.

covariation principle

The idea that behaviour should be attributed to potential causes that occur along with the observed behaviour.

bottom-up processing

"Data-driven" mental processing, in which an individual forms conclusions based on the stimuli encountered in the environment.

top-down processing

"Theory-driven" mental processing, in which an individual filters and interprets new information in light of preexisting knowledge and expectations.

statistical significance

A measure of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance.

field experiment

An experiment conducted in the real world (not a lab), usually with participants who are not aware they are in a study of any kind.

schema

A knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information that is used to help in understanding events.

institutional review board (IRB)

A committee that examines research proposals and makes judgments about the ethical appropriateness of the research.

control condition

A condition comparable to the experimental condition in every way except that it lacks the one ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected effect on the dependent variable.

reflected self-appraisal

A belief about what others think of one's self. •Our sense of self is not influenced by the opinions of others but what we imagine these opinions to be •Self-concept based on correct and incorrect perceptions of how others see us

stereotype

A belief that certain attributes are characteristic of members of a particular group.

self-schema

A cognitive structure, derived from past experience, that represents a person's beliefs and feelings about the self, both in general and in specific situations. A cognitive and memory structure that summarize and organize beliefs about self-relevant information in general and in particular kinds of situations (Markus, 1977) Help people navigate and interpret social stimuli including people's own behavior •E.g., Depending on what type one possesses (hard-working vs. lazy, reckless, and rude), one can interpret waking up and being late for work, driving fast and dangerously to work, avoiding interacting with other people at work

independent (individualistic) culture

A culture in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others.

interdependent (collectivistic) culture

A culture in which people tend to think of themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their group and placing less importance on individual freedom or personal control over their lives.

actor-observer difference

A difference in attribution based on who is making the causal assessment: the actor (who is relatively inclined to make situational attributions) or the observer (who is relatively inclined to make dispositional attributions).

natural experiment

A naturally occurring event or phenomenon having somewhat different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigor as in experiments where the investigator manipulates the conditions.

explanatory style

A person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific.

informed consent

A person's signed agreement to participate in a procedure or research study after learning all of its relevant aspects.

contingencies of self-worth

A perspective maintaining that people's self-esteem is contingent on the successes and failures in domains on which they have based their self-worth.

attribution theory

A set of concepts explaining how people assign causes to the events around them and the effects of these kinds of causal assessments. People are naive scientists who seek and use common-sense explanations to answer "why" questions about events around them

theory

A set of related propositions intended to describe some phenomenon or aspect of the world.

working self-concept

A subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind in a particular context. Situational-relevant or appropriate self-knowledge is activated in a given situation •E.g.: Self as a student activated in school-context, but self as an athlete activated when training with team

construal level theory

A theory about the relationship between temporal distance (and other kinds of distance) and abstract or concrete thinking: psychologically distant actions and events are thought about in abstract terms; actions and events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms.

self-discrepancy theory

A theory that behaviour is motivated by standards reflecting ideal and ought selves. Falling short of these standards produces specific emotions: dejection-related emotions in the case of actual-ideal discrepancies and agitation-related emotions in the case of actual-ought discrepancies. The self-concept is three simultaneous selves •The actual self is who we think we are currently, including strengths and weaknesses •The ideal self is who we would like and WANT to become in the future, maximizing positive qualities, eliminating/minimizing negative qualities •The ought self is what we think other people (e.g., parents, friends) expect of us Implications for emotion and motivation when failing or succeeding to live up to one's self's standard •Failing: Ought self: Anxiety, worry; Ideal: Depression •Succeeding: Ought: Relaxed, at peace; Ideal: Happy, excited Psychological conflict when these selves don't match

distinctiveness

A type of covariation information: whether a behaviour is unique to a particular situation or occurs in many or all situations.

consistency

A type of covariation information: whether an individual behaves the same way or differently in a given situation on different occasions.

primacy effect

A type of order effect: the disproportionate influence on judgment by information presented first in a body of evidence.

recency effect

A type of order effect: the disproportionate influence on judgment by information presented last in a body of evidence.

third variable

A variable, often unmeasured in correlational research, that can be the true explanation for the relationship between two other variables.

implementation intention

An "if-then" plan to engage in a goal-directed behaviour ("then") whenever a particular cue ("if") is encountered.

intervention

An effort to change a person's behaviour.

natural selection

An evolutionary process that molds animals and plants so that traits that enhance the probability of survival and reproduction are passed on to subsequent generations.

emotional amplification

An increase in an emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy it is to imagine the event not happening.

random assignment

Assigning participants in experimental research to different conditions randomly, so they are as likely to be assigned to one condition as to another, with the effect of making the types of people in the different conditions roughly equal.

Gestalt psychology

Based on the German word gestalt, meaning "form" or "figure," an approach that stresses the fact that people perceive objects not by means of some automatic registering device but by active, usually nonconscious interpretation of what the object represents as a whole. First proposed as a theory of how people perceive the physical world, holds that we should study the subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds (the gestalt, or whole) rather than the way in which the objective, physical attributes of the object combine, however, it is impossible to understand the way in which an object is perceived simply by studying these building blocks of perception. The whole is different from the sum of its parts. One must focus on the phenomenology of the perceiver on how an object appears to people instead of on the individual elements of the objective stimulus.

subliminal

Below the threshold of conscious awareness.

independent vs interdependent self-construal

Different cognitive representations of the self that people may hold. Those with this view internal attributes, such as traits, abilities, values, and attitudes as central to their sense of self. Represent a continuum of personal independence emphasized in "Western" cultures versus social interdependence emphasized in Asian cultures

external validity

How well the results of a study generalize to contexts outside the conditions of the laboratory.

self-affirmation theory

The idea that people can maintain an overall sense of self-worth following psychologically threatening information by affirming a valued aspect of themselves unrelated to the threat.

self-selection

In correlational research, the situation in which the participant, rather than the researcher, determines the participant's level of each variable (for example, whether they are married or not, or how many hours per day they spend playing video games), thereby creating the problem that it could be these unknown other properties that are responsible for the observed relationship.

internal validity

In experimental research, confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results.

independent variable

In experimental research, the variable that is manipulated; it is hypothesized to be the cause of a particular outcome.

dependent variable

In experimental research, the variable that is measured (as opposed to manipulated); it is hypothesized to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable.

debriefing

In preliminary versions of an experiment, asking participants directly if they understood the instructions, found the setup to be reasonable, and so on. In later versions, debriefing is used to educate participants about the questions being studied.

experimental research

In social psychology, research that randomly assigns people to different conditions, or situations, and that enables researchers to make strong inferences about why a relationship exists or how different situations affect behaviour.

base-rate information

Information about the relative frequency of events or of members of different categories in a population. (Representative Heuristic) •Base-rate neglect: How many members of the category are in the population relative to the members of all categories? •E.g., Classifying religious orientation based on physical appearance

dispositions

Internal factors, such as beliefs, values, personality traits, and abilities, that guide a person's behaviour.

heuristics

Intuitive mental operations, performed quickly and automatically, that provide efficient answers to common problems of judgment. Mental shortcuts that make it easy to solve problems •Mental shortcuts (i.e., rule of thumb) that guide efficient problem solving and making judgments •Require minimal conscious thought •Heuristics facilitate mental accessibility

self-esteem

Is our subjective, personal evaluation of ourselves Is our evaluation of our self-concept (i.e., good vs. bad; worthwhile vs. worthless, etc.) The overall positive or negative evaluation people have of themselves. • High self-esteem: more resistant to changing initial opinion • Low self-esteem: do not have confidence in own opinions; more open to change

causal attribution

Linking an event to a cause, such as inferring that a personality trait is responsible for a behaviour.

pluralistic ignorance

Misperception of a group norm that results from observing people who are acting at variance with their private beliefs out of a concern for the social consequences; those actions reinforce the erroneous group norm. o The collective belief in a false norm created by the ambiguous behavior of others o "A situation in which a majority of group members privately rejected norm, but go along with it because they incorrectly assume that most others accept it" o "everybody in the group believes that everybody in the group believes something that nobody in the group believes"

construal

One's interpretation of or inference about the stimuli or situations that one confronts. The way with which people interpret, comprehend, and perceive the social world. A special kind is what Ross calls the "Naïve realism", which is the conviction that we perceive things "as they really are", and we assume other reasonable people see things the same way. Over the years, social psychologists have found that two of these motives are of primary importance: the need to feel good about ourselves and the need to be accurate.

promotion focus

Self-regulation of behaviour with respect to ideal self standards; a focus on attaining positive outcomes through approach-related behaviours.

hindsight bias

People's tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome. Occurs when you believe you could have predicted an outcome, but only after you know what happened •"I knew it all along" •It gives an illusion of understanding of the past that undermines learning from this past

prevention focus

Self-regulation of behaviour with respect to ought self standards; a focus on avoiding negative outcomes through avoidance-related behaviours.

open science

Practices such as sharing data and research materials with anyone in the broader scientific community in an effort to increase the integrity and replicability of scientific research.

self-presentation

Presenting the person we would like others to believe we are.

replication

Reproduction of research results by the original investigator or by someone else.

deception research

Research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something that is done to them.

correlational research

Research that involves measuring two or more variables and assessing whether there is a relationship between them.

measurement validity

The correlation between a measure and some outcome the measure is supposed to predict.

reliability

The degree to which the particular way researchers measure a given variable is likely to yield consistent results.

self-enhancement

The desire to maintain, increase, or protect one's positive self-views.

parental investment

The evolutionary principle that costs and benefits are associated with reproduction and the nurturing of offspring. Because these costs and benefits are different for males and females, one gender will normally value and invest more in each child than will the other.

fundamental attribution error

The failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behaviour, along with the corresponding tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions on behaviour.

fundamental attribution error

The failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behaviour, along with the corresponding tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions on behaviour. The tendency to explain our own and other people's behavior entirely in terms of personality traits, thereby underestimating the power of social influence.

regression fallacy

The failure to recognize the influence of the regression effect and to offer a causal theory for what is really a simple statistical regularity.

fluency

The feeling of ease (or difficulty) associated with processing information. •Some stimuli are easier to process than others •For instance, unfamiliar or irregular words are harder to process than simple or familiar words. •Statements that rhyme, truer than those who are less felicitous •E.g.: People who read arguments printed in clear, easy to read font were more likely to believe what they read than those who read the same words printed in blurry, hard-to-read font (Oppenheimer et al., 2008)

better-than-average effect

The finding that most people think they are above average on various personality trait and ability dimensions.

social comparison theory

The idea that people compare themselves to other people to obtain an accurate assessment of their own opinions, abilities, and internal states. Proposes that we use social comparisons to construct our self-concept Flexible: •E.g.: The same target can be used for downward AND upward comparison depending on the motivations of the perceiver --> important to understand the perceiver's motives •Feeling good about oneself vs. Aiming to improve oneself

augmentation principle

The idea that people will assign greater weight to a particular cause of behaviour if other causes are present that normally would produce a different outcome.

discounting principle

The idea that people will assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behaviour if other plausible causes might have produced it.

Leary's sociometer hypothesis

The idea that self-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which a person is included or looked on favourably by others. •We feel good about ourselves when others look up to us •High self-esteem = thriving in one's relationships •Low self-esteem = experiencing interpersonal difficulties

framing effect

The influence on judgment resulting from the way information is presented, such as the order of presentation or the wording.

priming

The presentation of information designed to activate a concept and hence make it accessible. A prime is the stimulus presented to activate the concept in question. Initial activation of a concept. Refers to the initial activation of a concept that flashes across a semantic network and allows particular ideas to come more easily to mind

availability heuristic

The process whereby judgments of frequency or probability are based on how readily pertinent instances come to mind. Tendency to overestimate the frequency, riskiness, or importance of something based on how easily it is to recall specific examples; priming helps •E.g.: Hollywood couples are more likely to have an ugly divorce than live happily ever after given scandalous headlines in supermarket tabloids •Spending more time on Facebook (i.e., seeing a constant stream of happy accomplishments) leads people to think their friends are happier than they are themselves and likely to think life is unfair

representativeness heuristic

The process whereby judgments of likelihood are based on assessments of similarity between individuals and group prototypes or between cause and effect. •Focuses on surface similarities to make inferences •Classifying observations according to how closely they resemble the "typical" case •Can be helpful when observations resemble the prototypical case. E.g.: Inferring the quality of a product by its price or by how it's packaged Judgments based on representativeness may ignore other important sources of information

social psychology

The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours of individuals in social situations. The scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts, feeling, and behaviors are influenced by real or imagined presence of other people. The scientific study of the influence of the real, imagined, or implied presence of others on the individual's thoughts, feelings, and behavior

ideal self

The self that embodies people's wishes and aspirations.

ought self

The self that is concerned with the duties, obligations, and external demands people feel they are compelled to honour.

actual self

The self that people believe they are.

self-fulfilling prophecy

The tendency for people to act in ways that bring about the very thing they expect to happen.

self-handicapping

The tendency to engage in self-defeating behaviour in order to have an excuse ready should one perform poorly or fail.

self-monitoring

The tendency to monitor one's behaviour to fit the current situation.

counterfactual thinking

Thoughts of what might have, could have, or should have happened "if only" something had occurred differently. Imagining what might have been; alternative facts or events in the past that would have led to a different future.