social psychology exam 4
List ways to measure aggression
-Ice press (convince participant someone wronged them then tell them they can dictate how long the other person needs to hold their hand in the water) -hot sauce (participant knows partner isn't ok with heat and they get do dictate how much hot sauce they get to consume) -Noise blast (participant gets to decide how much loud noise someone has to endure) -shocks (participants decide how many shocks to give to partner)
Define aggression and explain the different types of it.
-Intentional attempts to harm other people. Indirect aggression (attempt to hurt someone but not face to face ex: rumors), Direct aggression ( face to face attempts to harm someone ex: yelling at someone), emotional (hurtful behavior that stems from angry feelings), Instrumental ( hurting another person to accomplish some other goal ex: trip opposing team player)
What are James' and Darwin's perspectives on the components of emotion?
-James: emotions are bodily responses (heart rate, sweaty palms) -Darwin: emotions are expressive behaviors (gestures, facial movements)
Explain the costs and benefits of group membership.
-benefits: gain self-knowledge from group members, increase ability to cope with stress, help us reach our goals (prestige), help us achieve goals we couldn't on our own (social change) -cost: barriers to joining a group, restrict personal freedom, demand time, energy, and resources, emotional distress when leaving a group
Explain biological factors, drive theories, and modern theories of aggression.
-bio factors: evolutionary perspective, competition for mates (men fight men when thinking about mates but only when there is other men there), testosterone (winning increases tes), wider faces linked to higher testosterone linked to more aggression, gain status (status attractive to females), genetic component (only in some people and only when exposed to high stress)
List and define the rules for judging fairness in a group.
-distributive justice: judgments about receiving a fair share of rewards (equity rule-rewards should be divided according to contribution) -procedural justice: judgments about procedure used to distribute rewards -transactional justice: extent to which people who distribute rewards justify their decisions and show respect for people who receive rewards
Explain the role of emotions in intergroup interactions
-emotions influence interactions between groups. (perceive another group as possibly rejecting our group->negative emotions->awkward social interactions->intensification of intergroup conflict
Compare and contrast the universality and cultural specificity of emotions.
-evolutionary approach (universal): emotion activate adaptive responses to threat and opportunities -cultural approach: emotions strongly influenced by values, roles, institutions, and socialization (emotions should vary across cultures
List and describe the different types of groups.
-group: people who perceive themselves to cohesive unit -common bond groups: group members are bonded to each other -common identity groups: group members are linked by a category
Define groupthink, explain why it happens, explain what reduces it, and give real life examples of it.
-groupthink: tendency of members of highly cohesive groups to assume their decisions can't be wrong, all members must strongly support group decisions, contrary info should be ignored -why it happens: very high level of cohesiveness, emergent group norms (suggest group is without faults and morally superior), failure to share info, brainstorming) performance matching, conforming to norms even when it lowers standards) -preventing: be impartial, encourage critical evaluation (assign a devil's advocate), subdivide the group and reunite to share view point, welcome critiques from outside of the group, call a second chance meeting before implementing a plan.
Individual differences
-hostile attribution bias (attribute most actions as being hostile), narcissism (aggress when people question their overly positive self-views), personality (type A people more aggressive than type B
List and explain the situations that increase aggression: gun availability
-increases intention to commit acts -increases likelihood that attempts is successful
Describe the traits associated with leaders
-intelligent, socially skilled, open to new experiences, extraverted
Describe the gender differences in aggression.
-men (aggression producing pain or physical injury) women(indirect aggression), men and women ( aggression after provocation, verbal aggression)
How do emotions influence reasoning?
-processing style perspective: different emotions lead people to reason in different ways. Ex: people feeling sad are less likely to stereotype than angry people. Happiness leads people to think more creatively and flexibly. -broaden and build hypothesis: positive emotions broaden thought and action repertories, which helps people build social resources.
Describe ways to reduce aggression and explain whether or not they are effective.
-punishments: many societies punish aggressive behaviors (prison), it works when its prompt, its certain to occur, its strong, its justified. -self regulation: internal mechanisms for restraining anger and aggression, it sometimes doesn't work, self-control requires cognitive effort (sometimes were depleted) -catharsis: vent anger and hostility in non-harmful way, does it work? No, actually increases aggressive responses
Define deindividuation and explain the factors that increase and decrease it.
-reduced self-awareness due to external conditions (doesn't increase or decrease negative behavior, just increases the likelihood\of following the norms) -Zimbardo(Stanford prison experiment) people feel anonymous->feel less responsible for their actions ->unrestrained/antisocial behavior -trick or treat study: kids were asked to only take one pieces of candy and some kids were asked their names others were left anonymous. Who took extra candy? -factors: group size (increase anonymity, decrease responsibility), anonymity (people behave worst when they are unidentified) -how to avoid: self-awareness, it is the opposite of self-awareness
Define social loafing and explain how to reduce it.
-reductions in effort when people work together compared to when they work alone. Reduce it by making each participants contribution obvious, increasing members commitment to success, increase apparent important of a task, give standards for performance.
Define social facilitation and describe why it happens.
-social facilitation: presence of an audience improves performance on a task. But only when the task is familiar -cockroach study: had roaches complete a hard or easy maze and when they ran the easy one it helped to have other roaches with them and harder mazes were faster when completing alone. -cycling and fishing reel studies: had recorded cyclist competing against each other instead of the clock and they performed faster. Then recorded children reeling up fishing line in pairs against each other and by themselves. He found children work faster in presence of others doing the same task, co-action effect.
List and describe the key components of a group.
-status: rank within groups -roles: behaviors expected of people in particular positions -norms: rules that inform people what's expected of them -cohesiveness: forces that cause members to remain in a group
Describe appraisal processes
-ways people evaluate events and objects in their environment is based on how they relate to their current goals -primary: unconscious, fast, automatic appraisals of whether event is consistent with goals. Leads to general pleasant/unpleasant feelings -secondary: specific and deliberative appraisal. General feelings become more specific emotions
infrahumanization
:reluctance to attribute complex emotions to outgroup members
"morality."
A psychological state that deems acts as immoral and wrong (rather than old-fashioned) also motivated punishment towards the immoral individual. Can be turned on and off
Describe the ways in which emotion is related to social relationships: Touch and physical closeness
can communicate emotion thru physical contact, promotes closeness: provides rewards to others, soothes, encourages reciprocity
Define bullying, explain the factors associated with it, and describe ways to reduce it.
Bullying: interpersonal aggression, one person intentionally and repeatedly aggresses against another person. Because bully has more status/power than victim -factors: lack of care for others suffering, endorsement of traditionally masculine traits, high social intelligence -contextual factors: little parental supervision, parental conflict, family gang member, parental abuse -reduce bulling: child supervision in school settings, teacher training, educate parents, changing norms in school
Why do we have morality
Comes with a feeling of righteousness, often aligned with one's lifestyle
Describe research on the universality of facial expressions
Paul Ekman tested Darwin's universality hypothesis and found that other cultures could depict between emotion expressions and that animals shared expressions. Also that the blind share similar expressions of pride and dejection.
emotion
brief, specific, socially oriented states
Social causes
Social exclusion: being excluded-> aggression->more exclusion. Exclusion leads to hostile mindset. DeWall study: participants either rejected or not then asked to filling a blank in a sentence and rejected filled in more aggressive.
Define "group" and identify what is and is not a group.
a collection of people who are perceived to be bonded together in a coherent unit to some degree
Frustration and provocation
assumptions of frustration aggression hypothesis (frustration always leads to aggression, aggression always stems from frustration) but frustration doesn't always lead to aggression and aggression do not always stem from frustration
Direct provocation
being provoked by someone is one of the strongest causes of aggression. Usually provoked person responds with aggression which provokes aggression in provoker.
Explain the role of culture in emotion.
cultures develop emotional accents, focal emotions (experienced and expressed more frequently), differ in how they recognize emotions, differ in what emotions they value or idealize, differ in display rules (where and when they can display emotions)
-politics and morality:
democrats focus largely on Harm, liberty and fairness moral spheres in their public policies, republicans focus on all five moral spheres equally
Describe the role of the brain in emotion.
emotion affects cognitive processes and judgments. Located in Frontal lobe connected to amygdala. Damage to this area may impact emotional processes: failure to consider feeling of fear and anxiety when decision making, inability to access feelings of sympathy when witnessing others suffering, cold treatment of those in need
Describe the ways in which emotion is related to social relationships: Group boundaries
emotion unites and divides people. Emotions depend how strong group feels in comparison to out group. Feels strong in comparison ->anger and contempt. Feels weak in comparison-> fear.
Describe the ways in which emotion is related to social relationships: Emotional mimicry
establishes similarity
Explain the role of entitativity in groups.
extent to which group is perceived as a coherent whole. Members interact with each other often, group is important to members, group members share common goals, group members perceive themselves as similar to one another
drive theories:
external conditions lead to frustration that lead to aggression. Frustration aggression hypothesis: anything that prevents us from achieving some goal leads to frustration, leading to aggression. (flawed theory)
List and describe all foundations. Purity/sanctity
focus here is on feeling physically and mentally clean or pure from corruption. -ex: attending a play of people acting as idiots and falling over vs. acting as animals and crawling around naked
List and describe all foundations. fairness/cheating
focus is karma; on people getting what they put in to a situation
List and describe all foundations. Liberty/oppression:
focus is on egalitarianism -ex: live in a country where elected officials often act on behalf of the people and sometimes act in self-interest vs. a dictator.
List and describe all foundations. authority/subversion
focus is on group hierarchy and respect for those who are above you. People expect those lower to be submissive and to protect those higher up. -ex: slap your friend in the face vs. your minister in the face with their permission.
List and describe all foundations. loyalty/betrayal sphere
focus is on the building of strong group bonds, anything that interferes with the group and its goals must be dealt with. -Ex: saying something bad about your nation on a radio show in your nation vs. foreign nation
moral credits
good deeds establish moral credits that can be withdrawn to purchase the right to do bad deeds.
Describe the ways in which emotion is related to social relationships: Emotional intelligence
how well people use their emotions in everyday life. Four skills: ability to accurately perceive others emotions, understand own emotions, use current feelings in decision making, manage emotions in ways that fit situation.
List and describe all foundations. -harm/care:
it is wrong to harm another person or animal
social embeddedness
knowing reputation of people involved
Describe features of a leader that produce group satisfaction.
leader seen as prototypical of the group (greater member satisfaction and perceived effectiveness of leader), prototypical leaders seen as making decisions that serve groups interest, trust prototypical leaders
Describe the roles of disgust in morality.
major motivator in morality, immorality leaves a bad taste in one's mouth. People who think about write or talk about a time they were immoral tend to prefer hand sanitizer, mouthwash and rate cleaning products as more value.
Describe evidence suggesting that morality is instinctual.
many moral laws are universal
cooperation:
mutual helping where both sides benefit
Temporary arousal
o any internal arousal state can enhance aggressive activity (even exercising or watching an erotic film) Excitation transfer theory: anger is physiologically similar to other emotional states and that any form of emotional arousal can enhance aggressive response. Cantor study: women participants were annoyed by female confederate then shown either a erotic film or a normal film then asked to choice nice music or horrible music to be played around opponent in a game, women who watched erotic films played horrible music.
Explain Darwin's hypotheses of emotion.
oprinciple of serviceable habits: emotions come from behaviors of our predecessors that helped them in the past -hypothesis 1: emotions should not vary across cultures because humans have the same facial muscles and use them the same way. -hypothesis 2: our emotional expressions should resemble those of other species because humans share an evolutionary history. -hypothesis 3: blind and sighted people share the same emotional expressions because it is encoded in our nervous systems.
What is moral licensing?
past moral behavior makes people more likely to do potentially immoral things without worrying or appearing immoral.
moral credentialing
reframes immoral behavior as not a transgressional
List and explain the situations that increase aggression: poverty
relative deprivation: feeling that one has less than the others to whom one compares oneself. During times of economic hardships there is more conflict in couples
List and explain the situations that increase aggression: alcohol
respond more strongly when provoked, reduced cognitive function-> altered social perception
Social learning
rewards of aggression (attention, status, monetary) when aggression is rewarded it will continue. Observational learning (bobo doll experiment)
social dilemmas
situations in which each person could increase own gains by acting selfishly, but everyone benefits are reduced if everyone is selfish
Describe the ways in which emotion is related to social relationships: Oxytocin and trust
source of feeling close and trust and love but also jealousy. In women displays of love (not desire) also release of oxytocin in bloodstream
Describe the ways in which emotion is related to social relationships: Role negotiation
status within a group tied to role, anger: high power emotion, embarrassment: low-power emotion
cultural differences in morality
the five moral spheres are thought to be found universally in humans. Their importance can be affected by culture -western: harm and fairness -japan: fear of nonconformity (loyalty) -Hindus/jews: dietary restrictions (purity) -Muslims: insulting the prophet (authority
describe the role of guilt in morality
unpleasant moral emotion associated with a specific instance in which one has acted badly or wrongly
List and explain the situations that increase aggression.:Heat
violent crime rates increase when temps are higher
Media violence
violent media such as tv, video games etc. increase likelihood of aggressive behaviors, effects are short term and long term. Video games increase aggressive affect and aggressive behavior. Reduces empathy and likelihood of engaging in prosocial behavior. Desensitization -> increases aggression. (P300 activity: people who previously played violent games had smaller P300 reactions (brain reaction) than those who play nonviolent games.)
List and explain the situations that increase aggression: pain
when people are in a bad mood they are most likely to induce pain
negative interdependence
where it isn't possible for two people to attain the same outcome
List and explain the situations that increase aggression: culture
white southern men more likely to respond with aggression, and to find incident humorous
Define group polarization and explain why it happens.
• -group members tend to shift towards more extreme positions than initially held by individuals in the group after a group discussion (whatever position the group was leaning towards is strengthened) • -it happens because: informational influence (increased number of arguments in favor of the dominant viewpoint), normative influence (social comparison: if we want others to like us we may express stronger opinions after discovering that they share our view points)
• What are moral dilemmas?
• Being faced with two horrible decisions. Ex: one person might have to be sacrificed to save many others.
Immune neglect & Focalism
•-Immune neglect: tend to underestimate our capacity to resilient in responding to difficulty, which leads us to overestimate the negative impacts of difficulties -focalism: tend to focus too much on one aspect of an event while neglecting to consider the impact of other aspects of that event or other events
Explain the general aggression model
•-different factors initiate events that lead to aggression, factors (situational, personal),lead to aggression through ( increase physical arousal, affective states/feeling negative, cognitions/thinking negatively ) , appraisal of situation and restraining factors-> behavior (thoughtful/don't act, impulsive/act)
modern theories:
•draw on different factors in different areas of psych to explain aggression. Social learning perspective (learning aggressive responses by observing behavior of others).
Explain the feelings as information perspective.
•many judgments are too complex to consider all factors involved, people rely on emotions for quick reliable info. -weather study: when people were asked life satisfaction they reported higher on sunnier days. But when asked about weather before asking about life satisfaction, weather had no impact
Explain the social intuitionist model of moral reasoning.
•people use moral rationalization, they start with the answer that comes from the unconscious and then work backward to come up with a plausible justification. •unconscious instincts is revulsion when we are harming an innocent
conflict
•perceive that others have taken or will take actions that are compatible with own groups interest
Explain what determines happiness and what brings people happiness.
•three determinate: peak moment of pleasure predicts feelings overall, feelings at the end predicts overall feelings, length is unrelated to overall feelings. (same for negative experinces) -what makes us happy; affective forecasting (predicting future emotions), we think our positive and negative emotions will be stronger than they are.
How do emotions influence moral judgments?
•two systems involved in decision making about right or wrong: gut feelings, deliberative processes involved in final moral judgment -different emotions guide moral judgments: self-critical-> our own violations of social norms, other-praising->approval of moral virtues in others, harm-related->our own prosocial behavior, other-condemning->other immoral acts
