Social Psychology - Midterm Exam I (Chapter 7 = "Attitude and Attitude Change") - Exam on October 19, 2017 {Exam Includes 1 - 8}

Because attitudes are mental representations, they cannot be weighed, watched or observed under microscopes. Attitude researchers infer attitudes from how people react to attitude objects. *TWO* aspects of people's reactions are important which are: (p. 231)

(*1*) *Attitude direction - whether the attitude is favorable, nuetral, or unfavorable. (*2*) *Attitude intensity -- whether the attitude is moderate or extreme.

*Attitudes are useful because: (p. 234-235)

(*1*) *FIRST* - Attitudes help people master the enviornment in *TWO* different ways: 1. Attitudes serve *knowledge function* by organizing, summarizing, and simplifying our experience, orienting us to the important characteristics of an attitude object, and providing a summary of its pluses and minues. 2. Attitudes also serve an *instrumental function*, steering us toward things that will help us achieve our goals and keeping us away from things that will hurt us. (*2*) *SECOND* - Attitudes are useful because they help us gain and maintain connectedness with others.

Not all information counts equally in determining an attitude. (p. 238-239)

(*1*) *FIRST* Important information usually out-muscles unimportant information. (*2*) *SECOND* Information that is accessible (comes to mind easily) or is salient (grabs attention and stands out in its context) dominates attitude judgments.

*The Informational Base of Attitudes* (p. 236-237)

(*1*) Cognitive information includes the facts people know and the beliefs they have about an attitude object. [*For Example* = Perhaps the high incidence of lung cancer among smokers has convinced you that cigarette smoking causes disease. (*2*) Affective information consists of people's feelings and emotions about the object. [*For Example* = Experiencing nauusea or anger when you are in a smoky closed area are pieces of affective information associated with cigarette smoking.] (*3*) Behavorial information is knowlege about people's past, present, and future interactions with the attitude object. [*For Example* = Knowig that you've never been tempted to try smoking, and that you leave a space when someone lights up is behaviorl informatoin related to cigarette smoking.]

*Processing Information about the Attitude Objects* Researchers have learned a lot about the *steps* involved in systmatic processing and how those steps influence persuasion. The *STEPS* are (p. 252-253)

*(1)* *Attending to Information.* *(2)* *Comprehending Information.* {*NOTE* = When messages are easy to comprehend, people can recognize compelling or weak content and react accordingly. *BUT* when messages are complex and difficult, peole can miss the true attributes of the attitude object and fall prey to superficial heuristics. *(3*) *Reacting to Information.* {*NOTE* = React sometimes favorably and sometimes unfavorably. When people pay attention to a message, understand its content, and react to it, a process called *elaboration*, systematic processing changes attitudes. Attitudes resulting from systematic processing last longer and more resistant to later change than most attitudes produced by superficial processing. Sometimes peopole engaged in systematic processing not only elaborate on information, they might also think about what those elaborations mean. Such *metacognition* can also affect whether or not a persuasion appeal is accepted. *(4)* *Accepting or rejecting the advocated position.* {*NOTE* = Thus when systematic processing occurs, people's reactoins to information about the attitude object can be even more *important* than the content of the information itself. In effect, people persuade themselves.}

*The Interplay of Cues and Content* People often use a mix of superficial and systematic processing and that means that *cues* and *content* can interact in some interesting ways. (p. 264-265)

*(1)* *FIRST* = Persuasion-relevant information can play multiple roles when it comes to changing attitudes. [*For Example* = When you see a famous supermodel endorsing a particular brand of shampoo, for example, the model's attractiveness can operate as a heuristic cue, but it can also act as evidence for the effectiveness of the product.] *(2)* *SECOND* = People might engage in both types of processing about teh same persuasive message simultaneously and so superficial and systematic processing can work together or at cross-purposes. [*For Example* = If an expert endorses a product and careful consideration of the product's features confirms the product's high quality, then both types of processing may result in your having a very favorable attitude toward the product] *(3)* *THIRD* = When message content is not so convincingly strong or weak, processing can be biased by heuristic cues. [*For Example* = The presence of an expert or attractive source might bias reactions to an ambiguous message, making elaborations more favorable.]

People protect established attitudes by ignoring, reinterpreting, or resisting information that is inconsistent with them. (p. 267)

*(1)* *FIRST* = We often try to ignore information that challenges our preferred views and deal only with information that supports them. *(2)* *SECOND* = When we do encounter such information, a second line of defense comes into action: reinterpretation. *(3)* *THIRD* = Attitudes themseleves create biases in how information is processed, so that inconsistent information is resisted.

*How Motivation Influences Superficial and Systematic Processing:* (p. 256)

*(1)* *Mastery motivation: The importance of being accurate* {*NOTE* = Some people just naturally seem to prefer puzzling over difficult problems, resolving inconsistencies, and searching for the right answers, regardless of the situation. Those who enjoy such activities are said to have high need for *cognition*. This need is indicated by people's response to statements like the ones in *Table 2*. *(2)* *Connectedness motivation. The importance of relations with others* *(3)* *Me and mine motivation: The importance of self-relevance* {*NOTE* = An old Chinese proverb says, "Tell me and I'll forget; involve me and I'll understand." When information is relevant to something that affects us, we want to know all about it.}

*How Capacity Influences Superficial and Systematic Processing* Even when people want to process systematically, they are *NOT* always able to do so. (p. 259)

*(1)* *The Ability to Process* {*NOTE* = Sometimes, people just do not have the mental resources to take in and evaluate all the available information. Even the most motivated processors of persuasive commuications occassionally have difficulty understanding all the complex and rapidly presented information offered in print, radio, an television commercials.} *(2)* *The Opportunity to Concentrate* {*NOTE* = Even if we have the ability, we cannot process systematically if we cannot concentrate those resources on the job at hand.}

*The Expertise Heuristic: Agreeing with Those Who Know." (p. 248)

*(1)* Communicators with excellent credentials usually offer compelling arguments, people often associate them with opinions that should be respected: Experts know what they are talking about. {*NOTE* = On the basis of this association, the credibility or expertise heuristic leads peple to accept the validity of a claim on the basis of who says it, not what is said.} *(2)* Expert communicators *MUST* be competent. *(3)* *Occupation is *NOT* the only cue that suggests competence. As long as people can understand the gist of a message, the faster the message is delivered, the more objective, intelligent, and knowledgement the communicator is seen to be, and the more willing listerners are to buy, learn about, and recommend the attiude object to others. *(4*)* After competence, *trustworthiness* is the *MOST* important characteristics a credible communicator can have. {*NOTE* = People expect expert communicators not only to know the facts but also to tell the *TRUTH*}

*The Attractiveness Heuristic: Agreeing with Those We Like*: (p. 246)

*(1)* If surrounding an attitude object with positive associations makes it seem more positive, no wonder advertisements often pair an attitude object with a popular or attrative figure. *(2)* Attractive people are well liked, and others are more likely to agree with them. No wonder then that attractive people are more likely to get their way. *(3)* Though we typically think of attractiveness as a feature of a person's physical attributes, such as one's muscular body or beautiful skin, communicators can be attractive or likeable for other reasons. *For Example* = Those who subtly mimic us, that is, copy our speech patterns, gestures, and other bodily movements, are perceived as quite likable. *(4)* When advertisers use attractive communicators, they usually make them the most promient features of the appeal. Does emphasizing a communicator's attractiveness increase our reliance on the attractiveness heuristic? --*Apparently so*--

*The Familarity Heuristic: Familiarity Makes the Heart Grow Fonder* (p. 245)

*(1)* The Association between familiarity and goodness is so powerful that it operates even when people are unaware of whether or how often they have seen the stimulus before. *(2)* Because of the positive feelings associated with familiarity, familiar stimuli can also be more persuasive. *(3)* Famililarity makes other aspects of a persuasive appeal more effective too. A repeated argument, claim, or persuasive appeal is more credible and persuasive the secon time people hear it than it is the first, and reptition strengthens weak arguments even more than it does strong ones.

*Figure 7.7* "Estblished Attitudes Guide Interpretation of Attitude-Relevant Information" (p. 268)

*(See Photo and Read)* *Figure 7.7*

Other attitudes are based on pimarily on affective information. There are several reasons why this can happen. (p. 237)

*FIRST* = We often get affective information before encountering cognitive information. [*For Example* = Imagine you see someone new across the room at a club, if she's dancing wiht a detested ex-boyfriend, you may hava negative gut reaction before even getting to know what she is like. *SECOND* = Affective information can be very strong and simply overwhelm cognitions. [*For Example* = Needles and blood often trigger strong negative emmotional reactions that can determine attitudes toward donating blood. *THIRD* = Some affective reactions may reflect inborn or genetic predispositions. [*For Example* = Reactions to sensory information like tastes, smells, loud noises, or repugnant sights reflect an inborn preference for pleasure over pain and play a big role in determining attitudes.]

[*Figure 7-2*] *Linking an Attitude ot the Object* (241)

*[See Photo and Review*] *Figure 7-2*

The attitudes that people openly deliberately express in self-report by behavior are: (p. 232)

*explicit attitudes*. [*For Example* = When people suspect that their attitudes differ from which *most* people think, or from what other people think is good, they can *control* their explicit attitudes to hide or deny their true attitudes. {*i.e* = People who typically don't like to admit that they favor underage drinking and unprotected sex, even though they know it is not right.}

Researchers have also come up with *implicit measures* to reveal people's (p. 232)

*implicit attitudes.* [*For Example* = One kind of *implicit* measure assesses muscle activity around the mouth and brows using facial electromyography (EMG). Because such muscle activity is involuntary, researchers can gauge both the intensity and the direction of attitudes o such sensitive issues as alcohol abuse or pre-marital sex regardless of respondents' over reactions.]

At the same time, expressing the "right" views can smooth interactioins and allow us to make a good impression. When this (p. 235)

*impressoin mangement function* is uppermost, people try to adopt and support the attitude that they thik their audience also endorses. [*NOTE* Both the social identity function and the impression management function of attitudes help us stay connected to others.]

The most straighforward way to measure attitudes is through (p. 231)

*self-report*: asking people to say what they think. [*For Example* = Consumer surveys, political polls, and even our daily exchange of opinions with friends and family are forms of *self-reports*]

Because other people's impressions of us are influenced by the attitudes we hold, attitudes serve a (p. 235)

*social identity function* by helping us define ourselves.

People combine the important, salient, and accessible positive and negative pieces of cognitive, affective, and behavorial information they acquire about an attitude object form an attitude. That combination determines the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the object and can produce: (p. 239)

*strong attitude* or *ambivalent attitudes.* Once an attitude is formed, it is associaetd wiht the attitude object.

Strong attitudes (p. 239)

A confidently-held extremely positive or negative evaluation that is persistent and resistant and that influences information processing and behavior. [*NOTE* = Strong attitudes meet mastery needs and connectedness needs very easily.]

Attitude (p. 230)

A mental representation that summarizes an individual's evaluatoin of particular person, group, thing, action, or idea.

According to the *Elaboration Likelihood Model* and other similar theories, people process messages systematically only when they have both the motivation and the cognitive capacity to do so. *Elaboration Likellihood Model* is defined as: (p. 255)

A model of persuasion that claims that attitude chagne occurs through either a peripheral route or a central route that involves *elaboration*, and the extent of elaboration depends on motivation and capacity.

When you don't smoke because smoking can cause lung cancer, your attitude is based on: (p.237)

A. *Cognitive information* {Correct Answer is A} B. Affective information C. Behavioral information D. Elementary information

Which of the following statements is correct? I. If it is important to make the right decision, we will process systematically. II. If we are motivated to connectedness, we will express opinions similar to those of our interaction partners. (pp.255-256)

A. *I and II are both true* [Correct Answer is A] B. I and II are both false C. I is true; II is false D. I is false; II is true

Subliminal self-help tapes can be successful because: (p.270)

A. *People actually believe in their effectiveness* [Correct Answer is A] B. People use them while they are asleep C. People are very susceptible to information they hear D. People who buy these tapes really want to change

Resisting a persuasive attempt can make our attitude even stronger. This is because: (p.267)

A. *We accept consistent information and criticize inconsistent information* [Correct Answer is A" B. We understand consistent information better C. Resisting a persuasive attempt makes us feel more self-confident D. All the answers are correct

Resisting a persuasive attempt can make our attitude even stronger. This is because: (p.267)

A. *We accept consistent information and criticize inconsistent information*[Correct Answer is A] B. We understand consistent information better C. Resisting a persuasive attempt makes us feel more self-confident D. All the answers are correct

According to the study by Petty and colleagues, in which situation will a student be most likely to process systematically?

A. *When they believe that their university will be instituting comprehensive exams in the next year.* {Correct Answer is A} B. When an expert presents strong arguments on the topic C. When a nonexpert presents strong arguments on the topic D. When they believe that another university will be instituting comprehensive exams in the next year.

When is systematic processing most likely? (p.254)

A. *When we have the ability to process and are able to concentrate on the message* [Correct Answer is A] B. When we are able to concentrate on the message and count the number of arguments in the message C. When strong arguments are used and we are able to concentrate on them D. When we are highly motivated and there is some noise around us

Which message is the most persuasive? (p.263)

A. A message that incorporates an extreme level of fear, because this makes people think about the threatening situation B. A message that incorporates a mediate level of fear and opens the ways to eliminate the anxiety C. A message that incorporates a mediate level of fear and shows beautiful people D. *A message that incorporates a mediate level of fear and reassuring instructions on how to eliminate the anxiety* [Correct Answer is D]

The central route of persuasion consists of (in the right order): (pp.243-244)

A. Acceptance; reaction; attention; comprehension B. Reaction; comprehension; acceptance; attention C. Attention; reaction; acceptance; comprehension D. *Attention; comprehension; reaction; acceptance* {Correct Answer is D}

Anne reads an article in the newspaper that supports her opinion about government policies, but isn't exactly her attitude. Anne concludes that the newspaper totally agrees with her. This is an example of: (p.267)

A. Contrast B. Subliminal persuasion C. *Assimilation* [Correct Answer is C] D. Boomerang effect

Which statement is correct? I: People's reactions to the content of a message can be more important than the content itself. II: Elaboration is always a cognitive process. (p.251)

A. I is false; II is true B. I and II are both true C. *I is true; II is false* {Correct Answer is C} D. I and II are both false

Who is the most likely to process a message about the generally accepted view that spending a lot of money is not good for you? (p.257)

A. Low self-monitors with a high need for cognition, and a promotion focus B. *High self-monitors with a high need for cognition, and a prevention focus* [Correct Answer is B] C. High self-monitors with a low need for cognition, and a prevention focus D. Low self-monitors with a low need for cognition, and a prevention focus

What is true about the bias we have to protect our attitudes? (p.26

A. People think less thoroughly about counter-attitudinal arguments because they reject them immediately B. People have a better memory for counter-attitudinal arguments C. People have a better memory for attitude-consistent arguments D. *People think more thoroughly about counter-attitudinal arguments in order to generate counterarguments to them* [Correct Answer is D"

What is true about the bias we have to protect our attitudes? (p.267)

A. People think less thoroughly about counter-attitudinal arguments because they reject them immediately B. People have a better memory for counter-attitudinal arguments C. People have a better memory for attitude-consistent arguments D. *People think more thoroughly about counter-attitudinal arguments in order to generate counterarguments to them* [Correct Answer is D]

One TV commercial for a deodorant uses a lot of women running in bikinis. This is a technique intended to promote: (p.242)

A. Systematic processing, because it increases the ability to process B. *Systematic processing, because it is attention grabbing* {Correct Answer is B} C. Superficial processing, because it distracts attention D. Neither systematic nor superficial processing, because women in bikinis are irrelevant for some people but very relevant for other people

What is NOT a consequence of a frequent occurrence of a joint activation of an object and its evaluation? (p.240)

A. The attitude becomes more automatic B. The attitude becomes a shorthand substitute for all the information about the object C. The attitude becomes more resistant to change D. *The attitude becomes more important* {Correct Answer is D}

Which of the following is NOT a heuristic used in superficial processing? (p.242)

A. The expert has the knowledge B. *Convincing arguments against a product* {Correct Answer is B} C. I like this person so he will be right D. Longer messages equal stronger messages

Which attitude is the true attitude? (p.231)

A. The true attitude is the explicit attitude because it reflects what people try to achieve B. The true attitude is the implicit attitude because it reflects what people really think C. The true attitude is the sum of the explicit and implicit attitude because in all situations this sum predicts behavior the best D. *Neither implicit nor explicit attitude is the true attitude* {Correct Answer is D}

What do we mean by the "boomerang effect"? (p.254)

A. When communicators attempt to influence us with peripheral arguments, we may respond by using central arguments B. *When communicators attempt to influence us with really bad arguments, we may respond by moving in the opposite direction* [Correct Answer is B] C. When communicators attempt to influence us with central arguments, we may respond by withdrawing into our own thoughts D. When communicators attempt to influence us with a lot of arguments, we may respond by not paying attention anymore

What is true about the influence of positive emotions on the way we process information? (p.259)

A.. When we feel good because of a certain task, we are motivated to keep this feeling and we are less eager to process information about the task. B. When we feel good, we do not think about the cause of this feeling, so we have all our cognitive capacity left for other things C. *When we feel good, we are motivated to keep this feeling and we are less eager to process information that might interfere with it* [Correct Answer is C] D. When we feel good, our attitudes are less likely to reflect associations based on heuristic cues

How do evaluate summaries -- attitudes -- emerge from all the information that accumulates about attitude objects? (p. 238)

Almost every piece of information reflects something *good* or *bad* about

Ambivalent attitudes (p. 240)

An attitude based on conflicting negative and positive information. [*NOTE* = Ambivalent attitudes do *NOT* help much with connectedness functions, because they do not really show what you stand for.]

When people process superficially, such simple pieces of information can act as persuasion heuristics, making attitudes more positive or negative. A *persuatoin heuristic* is a cue that can make people like or dislike an attitude-object without thinking about it in any depth. Defintion of *persuatoin heuristic* is (p. 242)

Association of a cue that is positively or negatively evaluated with the attitude ojbect, allowing the attitude object to be evaluated quickly and without much thought.

Implicit Attitude (p. 232)

Automatic and uncontrollable positive or negative evaluation of an attitude object.

*What it Takes to Resist Persuasion* (p. 269)

Because it involves careful thinking, resisting attitude change depends on having the motivation and capacity to fight off a persuasion attempt. Many people overestimate their ability to resist persuasive appeals. People tend to overestimate both their invulnerability to persuasive appeals adn their ability to generate effective arguments to counter them.

When people are targets of *persuasion*, they often do not give persuasive communication much thought. Persuasion is defined as (p. 273)

The process of forming, strengthening, or changing attitudes by communication.

*Superficial and Systematic Routes to Persuasion: From Snap Judgments to Considered Opinions* (p 240-241)

Different means of dealing with information can all change attitudes, *BUT* they do so in different ways and under different conditions. Thus, when it comes to *persuasion*, how peple deal with information can make as much difference as what information they deal with.

Persuasion (p. 231)

The process of forming, strengthing, or changing attitudes by communication. [*NOTE* = Persuasion is the deliberate attempt to bring about attitude change by communication. ]

Thus, both *positive* and *negative* emotions can increase or interfere with persuasion, depending on their motivational adn capacity consquences in particular circumstances. (p. 264)

If moods reduce either motivaiton or capacity, persuasion is more likely to depend on superficial processes and less on systematic processing.

*Attitudes and Attitude Change* What do the following events have in common? (p. 230)

In all these cases someone is trying to develop, strengthen, or change the attitudes of others. {*For Example*:] (1) In countries from every continent, committees campaign to make sure that their nation is chosen as the host for the next World Cup soccer championships. (2) In Spain, fast food franchise McDonald's pays for pop-up internet ads featuring videos of basketball stars Rickey Rubio to promote its EuroAhorro menu items.

*How Moods and Emotions Influence Superficial and Systematic Persuasive Processing" Are people in good moods easier to persuade? (p. 261)

Most of us think so. *BUT* unless pepole just rely on their current mood to make the judgment, the role that feeling good plays in persuasion is a little more complicated. By defintions, emotions have motivational consequences and thus can facilitate or impede persuasive processing. Some researchers have pointed out that emotions are like the *proverbial canary in the coalmine* -- they tell you if everything is just fine or if danger is imminent.

*Attitude Formation* (p. 236)

People combine the important, salient, and accesssible positive and negative pieces of cognitive, affective, and behavioral information they acquire about an atittude object to form an attitude. That *combination* determines the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the object and can produce strong attitudes or ambivalent attitudes. Once an attitude is formed, it is associated wiht the attitude object.

*Inoculation: Practice Can Be the Best Resistance Medicine*

People do an even better job of protecting their opinion if they are forewarned, or know in advance they are going to be attacked. When people expect others to try to change attitudes that are important to them, they marshal arguments to mount a good defense adn the more time they have to prepare a defense, the more successfully they resist persuasion. Addtitionally, *inoculation* can also be seen indirectly when examining attitudes that we rarely defend.

*Attitude Function* (p. 233)

People form attitudes about almost everything they encounter because attitudes are useful. The knowledge funciton and instrumental function of attitudes help people master the environment. The social identity and impression management function of attitudes express important connections with others.

*Superficial and Systematic: Processing: Which Strategy, and When?* (p. 255)

People process messages systematically only when they have both the motivation and the cognitive capacity to do so. Motivation is high when the message is relevant to important goals. *Cognitive capacity* is avilable when people have the ability process and can do so without distraction. People differ in their levels of motivation and capacity to process differnt kinds of messages. Messages that match people's motivation and capacity are most persuasive. Positive and negative emotions influence persuasion because they have consequences for motivation and capacity. People often use a mix of superficial and systematic processing, meaning that cues and content can interact in some interesting ways.

*Ignoring, Reinterpreting, and Countering Attitude-Inconsistent Information* (p. 267)

People protect established attitudes by ignoring, reinterpreting, or resisting information that is inconsistent with them. Being forewarned of a persuasion attempt and having previous experience with related arguments makes persuasion easier to resist, and resisitng attitude change can make established attitudes even stronger.

*Measuring Attitudes* (p. 231)

Researchers infer attitudes from people's reactions to attitude objects. Such reactions can range from subtle uncontrollable evauluative reactions that people are unaware of, to more deliberate and controllable expressions of support or opposition. Asssessing these different reactions shows that *implicit attitudes* can sometimes differ from *explicit attitudes*.

*Systematic Processing: Thinking Persuasion Through* (p. 251)

Sometimes people carefully consider the content of arguments presented in a persuaive communication. When people pay attention to a message, understand its content, and react to it, a process called *elaboration*, *systematic processing* changes attitudes. Sometimes systematic processing also includes *metacognition*, or thinking about what those elaborations mean. Attitudes resulting from systematic processing last longer and are more resistant to later change than most attitudes produced by superficial processing.

Explicit Attitude (p. 232)

The attitude that people openly and deliberately express about an attitude object in self-report or by behavior.

Elaboration (p. 253)

The generation of favorable or unfavorable reactions to the content of persuasive appeal.

Attitude Change (p. 231)

The process by which attitudes form and change by the association of positive or negative information with the attitude object.

Various superficial aspects of the persuasive appeal can lead to attitude change. *For Example* -- people might form a positive or negative attitude because positive or negative objects or events become associated with the attitude object, via a process called *evaluative conditioning* which is defined as: (p. 242)

The process by which positive or negative attitudes are formed or changed by association with other positively or negatively valued objects. *Note*: (*1*) Evalaute conditioning can create powerful attitudes with only a few pairing. (*2*) Just as positive evalutive conditioning makes attitudes more positive, negative, evalaute conditioning can be particularly useful if you want to make people feel more negatively about things that are unhealthy or illegal. (*3*) People don't even have to be aware of the associated positive or negative cues for evaluative conditioning to work. (*4*) Evaluative conditioning in the backbone of many persuasion campaigns that try to make their attitude objects wonderful by surrounding them with as many pleasant associations as possible.

Social Identity Function: (p. 235)

The way an attitude contributes to connectedness by expressing important self and group identities and functions. [*For Example* = Those who see themselves as traditionalists are more likely to prefer well-established brand-name products to new or generic ones.]

Impression Management Function (p. 235)

The way an attitude contributes to connectedness by smoothing interactions and relationships.

Instrumental function (p. 234)

The way an attitude contributes to mastery by guiding our approach to positive ojbects and our avoidance of negative objects.

Knowledge function (p. 234)

The way an attitude contributes to mastery by organizing, summarizing, and simplifing experience with an attitude object.

Metacognition (p. 253)

Thoughts about thoughts or about thought processes.

*Superficial Processing: Persuation Shortcuts* (p. 242)

When people do not give persuasive communications much thought, various superficial aspects of the persuasive appeal can lead to attitude change. *For example* -- people might be influenced by positive or negative objects or events associated with the attitude object, or by other feelings they are experiencing. They might also agree with the message from familiar, attractive, or expert sources or with familiar long messages.

*Figure 7.5* Effects of motivation on message processing* (p. 258)

[*See Photo and Review Example*] *Figure 7.5*

*Figure 7.3* "Evaluative Conditioning and Attitude Formation" (p. 243)

[*See Photo and Review*] *Figure 7.3*

*Figure 7.6* "How motivation and capacity influence superficial and systematic processing of persuasive communications" (p. 266)

[*See Photo and Review*] *Figure 7.6*

*Table 7.2* *The Need for Cognition Scale: Sample Items* (p. 256)

[*See Photo and Review*] *Table 7.2*

*The Message-Length Heuristic: Length Equals Strength* (p. 250) *Table 7.1* - Describes another persuation technique that encourages people to rely on the sheer number of arguments supporting a particular position.

[*See Photo and Review*] Of course, quanitity does not always mean quality -- and the focus on numbers can blind us to the inadequacy of the reasoning. *Table 7.1*

*Figure 7.1* = *Attitude Formation and Measurement* Having lots of positive information about an attitude object typically results in a positive attitude; whereas having negative beliefs, feelings, or behaviors produces a netative attitude.

[See Photo and Review] *7.1*

*The Consequences of Systematic Processing* *Figure 7-4* ~ The processes involved in systematic processing and their likely outcome are illustrated in Figure 7.4. (p. 254)

[See Photo and Review] *Figure 7.4*

To understand *attitude change* attitude researchers infer *attitudes* from how people react to attitude objects. (p. 230-231)

attitude objects. (p. 230-231)

Attitudes can be based on just one type of information, or on any combination of tehse types of information. Many attitudes reflect mainly congitive information -- (p. 237)

beliefs and facts -- about attitude objects, especially if that information comes from hearsay rather than direct experience.

Social psychologist also use *observation* of behavior to (p. 232)

gauge attitudes. [*For Example* = They might infer attitude direciton from whether people volunteer to stuff envelopes for a campaign to save the spotted owl, and intensity from how many envelopes they are willing to stuff.]

Information about behavior can also dominate our attitudes, particularly if that behavior is (p. 237)

habitual.

*Forming attitudes* comes (p. 234)

naturally to humans. [*NOTE* = Research including studies measuring brain activity shows that people evaluate almost everything they encounter and do so very quickly.]

Knowing the kind of information attitudes are based on gives us clues about how to create, strengthen, or change attitudes thorugh: (p. 230)

persuasion.