Social Research Methods
Basic Steps of Elaboration Paradigm
1. A relationship is observed to exist between two variables 2. A third variable (the test variable) is held constant in the sense that the cases under study are subdivided according to the attributes of that third variable 3. The original two-variable relationship is recomputed within each of the subgroups 4. The comparison of the original relationship with the relationships found within each subgroup provides a fuller understanding of the relationship itself.
regression analysis
A method of analyzing sets of data and sets of variables that involves studying how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied and the other independent variables remain fixed.
Validity
A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure
Be able to measure each of the variables using two different levels of measurement: 1) age, 2) income, 3) family size, 4) obesity
AGE: would be an interval and ratio level of measurement - Interval Measure: describes a variable whose attributes are rank ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes - Ratio Measure: describes a variable with attributes that have the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval measures and in addition are based on a "true zero" point INCOME: would be an interval/ratio level of measurement because it can be rank ordered depending on your income level - also considered a ratio variable because it extends from zero to infinity FAMILY SIZE: - can be a ratio level of measurement because the variable family size can have specific numbers - can also be ordinal because you can rank the children from youngest to oldest OBESITY: - can either be nominal or ordinal level - obesity can be ordinal because you can rank it in terms of categories (ex: underweight, normal, overweight, and obese) - can also be interval because you can rank it in terms of numbers (ex: 0-100 lbs, 100-150 lbs, 150-200 lbs, etc.)
What are the strengths of field research? What topics are particularly appropriate for field research?
Field research offers the advantage of probing social life in its natural habitat; lets researchers observe subtle communications and other events that might not be anticipated or measured otherwise Appropriate for the study of those attitudes and behaviors best understood within their natural setting Well suited to the study of social processes over time
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Method of analysis in which cases under study are combined into groups representing an independent variable, and the extent to which the groups differ from one another is analyzed in terms of some dependent variable. Then, the extent to which the groups differ is compared with the standard of random distribution.
Discuss the notions of reliability and validity in survey research. What are the basic types of invalidity and how do we measure them? How can we improve reliability and validity?
Reliability: that quality of measurement
*Know the following steps in preparing for field research: review of relevant literature, use of informants, and establishing initial contacts.
Review of Relevant Literature Use of Informants o Mixture of facts and their point of view Establishing Initial Contacts o Making contact with people you plan to study
17. Compare the strengths and weaknesses of the field research with both surveys and experiments, particularly in terms of reliability and validity.
STRENGTHS: o Effective in studying nuances of attitudes and behaviors o ---- social processes over time o Permits an in depth understanding o Flexibility in research design o Can be relatively inexpensive o Cane give superior validity of concepts (in depth understanding) o Important in developing grounded theory (inductive logic) o Comprehensiveness of perspective WEAKNESSES: o Not an appropriate means to arriving at statistical descriptions of a large population o Potential problem with reliability
Reliability
That quality of measurement method that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon
probability proportionate to size (PPS)
This refers to a type of multistage cluster sample in which clusters are selected, not with equal probabilities but with probabilities proportionate to their sizes - as measured by the number of units to be sub-sampled
What are the ethical issues involved in field research?
This type of research introduces an ethical issue, one on which social researchers them- selves are divided. Is it ethical to deceive the people you're studying in the hope that they will confide in you as they will not confide in an identified researcher? People may become too involved in the research
quota sampling
Units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics, so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied
What is a cross-tabulation? What are the general procedures for doing a cross-tabulation using SPSS? What does it show?
a cross tabulation is a tool that allows you to compare the relationship between two variables - procedures: row- one or more variables to use in the rows of the crosstabs. You must enter at least one row variable column- you must enter at least one column variable
frequency distribution
a description of the number of times the various attributes of a variable are observed in a sample
linear regression analysis
a form of statistical analysis that seeks the equation for the straight line that best describes the relationship between two ratio variables
cluster sampling
a multistage sampling in which natural groups are sample initially, with the members of each selected group being sub-sampled afterward
systematic sampling
a type of probability sampling in which every kth unit in a list is selected for inclusion in the sample
simple random sampling
a type of random sampling in which the units composing a population are assigned numbers. a set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those numbers are included in the sample
Geographic Information System (GIS)
analytic technique in which researchers map quantitative data that describe geographic units for a graphic display
nonprobability sampling
cannot guarantee that the sample we observed is representative of the whole population; non-probability would be best for sampling a certain kind of population - ex: you cannot obtain a list of every homeless person in the U.S. and you certainly can't create one either so you use alternative methods of non-probability sampling such as reliance on available subjects
sampling frame
list of individuals from which a sample is actually selected - if a sample of students is selected from a student roster, the roster is the sampling frame
Variable
logical set of attributes -ex: the variable SEX is made up of the attributes male and female
Discuss the major advantages and disadvantages of each of the three basic ways to administer a survey. Under what circumstances would each be the preferred method?
mailed survey - PROS: low cost, needs minimal staff, access to widely dispersed samples, R has time to give thoughtful answers - CONS: needs to have a good sample frame. Ineffective way of enlisting cooperation, disadvantage of not having an interviewer on premises 2. Telephone Surveys - PROS: low cost, shorter data collection time, has advantage of an interviewer, likely better response rate than mail, 95.5% of HH have phone - CONS: sampling limitations, nonresponse associated with RDD is high, possibly inappropriate for sensitive questions, cell phones, FAX, modems, telemarketing conflicts, unlisted phone numbers - Random Digit Dialing (RDD): a sampling technique in which random numbers are selected from within range of numbers assigned to active phones 3. Face-to-Face Interviews -PROS: most effective for enlisting cooperation, advantage of interviewer for probes, questions, etc., multi-methods, longer interviews can be done in person -CONS: likely to be the most costly of all, trained staff must be geographically near R, data collection period is longer, some R may be reached by other modes 4. Web-based surveys - PROS: Least expensive of all techniques, data tabulation instantaneous, minimal staff needed -CONS: consider the sample frame problems, consider the population of interest and its "level of engagement," design issues only now being researched and published
snowball sampling
often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to select additional people for interviewing
Review the discussion of the 1948 Gallup Poll that predicted that Thomas Dewey would defeat Harry Truman for president. Discuss some ways in which the Gallup could have modified his quota sampling design to avoid the error.
quota sampling: a nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population - gallops sample of the poll was based on levels of income, the selection procedure ensured the right proportion or respondents at each income level -this technique requires that you know something about the total population, gallups failure rests upon unrepresentative - WWII had created a massive movement from country to cities, changing the character of the U.S. population from what the 1940 census showed -Gallup relied on the 1940 census data; city dwellers voted democratic, hence, the over-representation of rural voters in his poll had the effect of underestimating the number of democratic voters
quantitative analysis
techniques by which researchers convert data to a numerical form and subject it to statistical analyses - ex: transforming the variables male and female into "1 & 2"
study population
that aggregation of elements from which a sample is actually selected
sampling unit
that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling
univariate analysis
the analysis of a single variable, for purposes of description
the elaboration model - multivariate analysis
the analysis of the simultaneous relationships among several variables
bivariate analysis
the analysis of two variables simultaneously, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them
sampling error
the degree of error to be expected for a given sample design
stratified sampling
the grouping of units composing a population into homogeneous groups before sampling; improves the representatives of a sample
probability sampling
the most common type of samples and are used when researchers want a precise, statistical descriptions of large populations this remains the most effective method for the selection of study elements for two reasons: -it avoids researcher bias in element selection -it permits estimates of sampling error
purposive sampling
the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher's judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative
Dispersion
the way values are distributed around some central value