Socio-Cultural, Stereotyping 5.4

What research method was used in Martin & Halvorson's study of gender stereotyping and memory? A quasi-experiment A true experiment A naturalistic observation A field experiment

A quasi-experiment, The children were allocated to groups based on their own gender - they were not randomly allocated. This is a defining feature of a quasi-experiment.

In a study of geography skills, John was asked to read an article about how poorly American score on world geography tests compared to Europeans. He doesn't believe that the article is true. What can we predict will be the results of his geography test? He will do poorly due to stereotype threat. He will not do poorly because he doesn't believe in the stereotype. He will do really well in order to prove that the stereotype is incorrect. His anxiety will rise and he will not be able to take the test.

He will do poorly due to stereotype threat.

What psychologists founded the idea of illusory correlation?

Hamilton and gifford

What was the control used by Payne in his study of stereotypes and memory? He had only nonsense words that had no clear meaning. He used more than one group. He made sure that none of the participants had African American friends. He gave a test of racism and eliminated any participants with high-scores

He gave a test of racism and eliminated any participants with high-scores

Which of the following is an example of a stereotype? Japanese men are workaholics. Americans tend to value freedom and independence. The Czech Republic drinks a lot of beer. There is a low crime rate in Denmark.

Japanese men are workaholics.

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

Steele and Aronson (1995)aim

carried out an experiment to see the effect of stereotype threat on performance

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) procedure

carried out an experiment where participants listened to a series of statements made about people from two groups - simply called group A and B. There were twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13), so group B was the minority group. Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was either positive or negative. Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments.

Illusory correlation is an example of what researchers call "____ ___", that is, a person's tendency to make errors in judgment based on cognitive factors. Attribution errors are also examples of cognitive bias.

cognitive bias

Once illusory correlations are made, people tend to seek out or remember information that supports this relationship. This is an example of _____ ___.

confirmation bias

Rogers and Frantz (1962) results

found that white immigrants to Rhodesia (today's Zimbabwe) developed more stereotypes and prejudice against the local people the longer they stayed there. They argue that this is because they adopted the social norms that were dominant in the group they were joining in order to fit in.

can stereotypes be positive and negative?

generalization may be either positive or negative

Campbell (1967) maintains that there are two key sources of stereotypes: personal experience with individuals and groups, and gatekeepers - the media, parents, and other members of our culture. He goes on to argue that stereotypes thus have a basis in some reality. His __ ___ ___ ___ argues that an experience with an individual from a group will then be generalized to the group.

grain of truth hypothesis

Steele and Aronson (1995) procedure

They gave a 30-minute verbal test, made up of very difficult multiple-choice questions. When one group was told it was a genuine test of their verbal abilities, African American participants scored significantly lower than European American participants. In another group which was presented with the same test but told that it was not significantly different from the European American students.

What is an illusory correlation?

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) argue, instead, that stereotypes are the result of an ____ ____

illusory correlation

Stereotypes can also be formed as a means of taking on the ____ _____ social representation of the out-group. In other words, individuals may conform to the group norms with regard to the "other"

in-group's

Schneider (2004) argues that there are two ways that stereotypes develop:

indirectly, as a product of our culture or society or directly, as a result of own experience with other people.

A____ is defined as a social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes. it is a generalization that is made about a group and then attributed to members of that group.

stereotype

two ways in which stereotyping may affect behaviour are_____ _____ and ____ ____.

stereotype threat , memory distortion

Martin & Halverson (1983), aiM

the researchers wanted to see if gender stereotyping would influence recall in 5 and 6-year-old children

Rogers and Frantz (1962) research design

the study, however, was cross-sectional. In other words, the behaviour of the participants was not measured over time, but instead a "snapshot in time" was taken and the data was compared. We cannot know if there was a significant change in the stereotyping and prejudice of the participants over time as their original attitudes toward the local people were never measured.

Hamilton and Gifford (1976)- illusory correlation

Aim: Hamilton and Gifford claim that illusory correlations are responsible for stereotypes. Findings: A woman who is awful at driving. After the illusory correlation has been made we use confirmation bias to gather more evidence to support our illusory correlation. Conclusion: We will tend to find more bad female drivers but ignore female race drivers.

___ ___ makes stereotypical thinking resistant to change

Confirmation bias

Martin & Halverson (1983), procedure

Each child was shown 16 pictures, half of which depicted a child performing gender-consistent activities (for example, a boy playing with a truck) and half showing children displaying gender-inconsistent behaviours (for example, a girl chopping wood). One week later, they tested the recall of the children to see how many of the photos that they could recall accurately.

Steele and Aronson (1995) results

However, it was not possible to argue that awareness of racial stereotyping was the actual cause of the difference, so they did one more version of the experiment where the participants had to fill in a personal information questionnaire. Half of the questionnaires asked the participants to identity their race. African Americans who had to identify their race did poorly; those that did not, did just as well as their European American peers.

George sees a Swedish tourist at his local restaurant. He watches as the tourist argues with the waiter about the bill. When the tourist realizes that the mistake is his, and not the waiter's, he does not apologize, but storms out of the restaurant. George thinks that all Swedish tourists are rude. Which theory or concept below explains what just happened? Grain of truth hypothesis Informational social influence Confirmation bias Illusory correlation

Illusory correlation

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) results

Participants were then asked how many of the people in each group had positive vs. negative traits. They overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group. Hamilton & Gifford argued that this was because the minority group was by nature smaller in number, their negative behaviours appeared more distinct and appear to be representative of the group. So, one minority male is caught stealing and it appears to be related to the fact that he is a minority. This demonstrates why negative stereotypes may be more common for minority groups than for the majority. Such research has led to the modern practice in many countries not to report the race or ethnicity of people who have been charged with a crime.

Steele and Aronson (1995) spot light anxiety

Steele & Aronson argue that you don't need to believe in a stereotype for it to affect your behaviour. Stereotype threat turns on spotlight anxiety, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance.

What psychologists founded the idea of stereotype threats?

Steele and Aronson

stereotype threat

Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype

_____ is a form of social categorization that affects the behaviour of those who hold the stereotype, and those who are labeled by a stereotype. Researchers explain stereotyping as a result of ____ processing.

Stereotyping, schema

Martin & Halverson (1983) findings

The results showed that children easily recalled the sex of the actor for scenes in which actors had performed gender-consistent activities. But when the actor's behaviour was gender inconsistent, the children often distorted the scene by saying that the actor's sex was consistent with the activity they recalled - that is, they would remember that it was the boy playing with a truck, when in fact they had been shown a photo of a girl playing with a truck.

What does it mean when we say that Rogers & Frantz's study was cross-sectional? The study compared the results of several different studies. The sample represented all types of people from the population being studied. The study had more than one culture represented. The study analyzed data from the population only at one point in time.

The study analyzed data from the population only at one point in time.

What is a key limitation of Hamilton & Gifford's (1976) study? It cannot be replicated. It used nationalities for which the participants may have already had stereotypes. The test itself was highly artificial and may not predict what happens in the "real world." The number of slides were not the same for both groups which means that the data is not comparable.

The test itself was highly artificial and may not predict what happens in the "real world." he study has low ecological validity. We don't usually make decisions about a group of people because we are asked to by a researcher after a series of random statements about groups. Although we may draw conclusions about a group after reading about them on the Internet, watching television or hearing comments from others, the methodology of the experiment is questionable with regard to its ecological validity because it is highly controlled and removes any other potential variables that would affect how we think about a group - eg. personal appearance, historical relationships, etc.

____ ___ can come in many forms and culturally-based prejudice about social groups can to some extent be classified as __ ___

llusory correlations,

Another effect of stereotyping is ____ ____

memory distortion