Sociology 101-Olympic College (Dr. Hicks)/Chapters 4-6 review

Crime and Demographics

*Class*- social class is more directly related to how citizens are officially treated by the police, courts and prisons than to which individuals are likely to commit crime. These same factors that cause an area to become economically and socially disadvantaged also encourage criminal activity. lack of jobs, child care and good schools are all factors that can lead to economic strain and criminal activity. There can also be *white collar crimes* which are committed by high-status individuals in the course of their occupation (such as embezzlement or insider trading.) *Age*- the younger the population, the more likely its members are to commit crimes with the peak age for arrests being 19. We must be careful of stereotyping however because it may be that the public and police will be more likely to accuse and arrest young people and less likely to target seniors. *Gender*- males notoriously commit more crimes and constitute 88% of all arrests. Women's crime rates may seem lower because of genetics but social structure plays a major role in it. *Race*- the relationship between race and crime is a controversial one and can be explained by Merton's self-fulfilling prophecy and by class variables. **None of these variables affect crime rates in isolation; they work together to shape the experiences of individuals as well as the larger society.

Symbolic Interactionism (MICRO LEVEL)

*Differential Association Theory* (Sutherland)- is the hypothesis that we learn to be deviant through our association with deviant peers. Simple peer pressure can lead to deviant behavior. While this theory seeks to explain "why they do it" it cannot fully explain every case of deviant behavior-nor can any theory of deviance. *Labeling Theory* (Becker)- is the idea that deviance is not inherent in any act, belief or condition but instead is a consequence of external judgments , or labels, that modify the individuals's self-concept and change the way others respond to the labeled person. It recognizes that labels will very depending on the culture, time period and situation. Applying deviant labels can lead to further deviance! The audiences response to you is what defines whether or not you are involved in deviance. Once you are labeled you assume a master status regardless if the label is true or not. It affects your sense of self and changes the way the audience interacts with you. Applies to pure deviants and falsely accused. For every rule a social group creates four categories of people exist: 1. Conformists- did not break a rule and did not have a response from the audience. 2. Pure Deviant- did break a rule and the audience responded appropriately. 3. Secret Deviant- broke a rule and no one has found out about it or the audience chooses to ignore it and not label it. 4. Falsely Accused- accused of deviance but it is not true and are labeled by the audience anyway. -*primary deviance* is the initial act or attitude that causes one to be labeled as deviant. -*secondary deviance* is the subsequent deviant identity or career that develops as a result of being labeled deviant. -*tertiary deviance* is redefining of the stigma associated with a deviant label as a positive phenomenon. -*self-fulfilling prophecy* is an inaccurate statement or belief that, by altering the situation, becomes accurate; a prediction that causes itself to come true. This can be used to explain some racial and ethnic issues in the US (such as profiling of young African American males in the inner city.) -*stereotype threat*- is a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy in which the fear of performing poorly- and confirming stereotypes about their social groups-causes students to perform poorly. -*stereotype promise* is a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy in which positive stereotypes, such as the "model minority" label applied to Asian Americans, lead to positive performance outcome for Asian Americans.

Deterrence and Punishment

1. *Deterrence* is an approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes. However there is seldom a direct and causal link between two factors-in this case, the cost of punishment versus the benefit of the crime. 2. *Retribution* is an approach to punishment that emphasizes retaliation or revenge for the crime as the appropriate goal. 3. *Incapacitation* is an approach to punishment that seeks to protect society from criminals by imprisoning or executing them. 4. *Rehabilitation* is an approach to punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty so that once released , he will not return to a life of crime. 5. *Criminal Justice System* is a collection of social institutions such as legislatures, police, courts and prisons that create and enforce laws. Although it provides important benefits, such as social control and even employment for its workers, it also replicates some of the inequalities of power in our society. 6. *Capital Punishment* also known as the death penalty.

Leadership

1. *Instrumental*- leadership that is task or goal oriented. 2. *Expressive*- leadership concerned with maintaining emotional and relational harmony with the group.

Functionalism (Durkheim)

1. Deviance can help society clarify its moral boundaries as we are reminded about our shared notions of right and wrong when we have to address wrongdoings of various sorts. 2. Deviance helps to promote social cohesion as people are brought together as a community in the face of tragedy, crimes or other violations.

Teamwork

1. *Social Loafing*- The phenomenon in which as more individuals are added to a task, each individual contributes a little less; a source of inefficiency when working in teams. 2. *Social Identity Theory*- a theory of group formation and maintenance that stresses the need of individual members to feel a sense of belonging. The most efficient teams are characterized by the greatest shared social identity among their members.

Structural/ Strain Theory (MACRO LEVEL)

1. An individual's position in the social structure will affect his experience of deviance and conformity. Social inequality can create situations in which people experience tension or strain between the goals society says they should be working toward (like financial success) and the means they have available to meet those goals (such as working hard at a legitimate job.) The rewards of conformity, therefore, are available only to those who can pursue approved goals through approved means. Any other combination of means and goals is then deviant in one way or another. -*Innovators* are individuals who accept society's approved goals but not society's approved means to achieve them (such as drug dealing or embezzling.) -*Ritualists* are individuals who have given up hope of achieving society's approved goals but still operate according to society's approved means. -*Retreatists* are individuals who renounce society's approved goals and means entirely and live outside conventional norms all together (such as dropouts and hermits.) -*Rebels* are individuals who reject society's approved goals and means and instead create and work toward their own (sometimes revolutionary) goals using new means.

Conflict Theory

1. Rules are applied unequally and that the punishments for rule violators are unequally distributed: those at the top are subject to different rules and sanctions than those nearer the bottom, and the behaviors of less powerful groups are more likely to be criminalized than the behaviors of the powerful. 2. *Social Control* can be both informal (as in the exercise of control through customs, norms and expectations) or formal (as in the exercise of control through laws or other official regulations. Both forms of social control can be exercised unequally in a hierarchical society which is what conflict theory is concerned with when it comes to deviance.

Deviance

A behavior, trait, belief or other characteristic that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction in a particular group. Deviances are constructed from cultural, historical and situational norms. The importance of these norms becomes clear when we remember that what is deviant in one culture may be normal in another and can change over time. The norm violations can vary from minor to severe or even taboo. There are also varying degrees of sanctions associated with these violations. Group membership in itself can lead to deviance. **That which violates the current, generally accepted norms of a given society. Deviance is relative! (Such as attitudes toward smoking and how hey have changed over time.) There are reasons why people respond differently or change: 1. Variation over time and place. 2. Who commits it and who is harmed. 3. Variation in consequence or outcome. The ABC's of deviance: A- Attitude (your thought process) B- Behavior (what you do to break rules) C- Condition (who you are including your body/ physical attributes and who you are as a group member) You can under or over conform in any of the three categories. Overconforming to a rule can still be considered deviant behavior (such as eating disorders or always telling the truth.)

Sociobiology (1975)

A branch of science that uses biological and evolutionary explanations for social behavior. "Genetically Informed Sociology"

Groups

A collection of people who share some attribute , identify with one another, and interact with each other. Group memberships prevents anomie, anchors us to the social world and helps keep us alive. 1. *Crowd*- a temporary gathering of people in a public place; members might interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact. 2. *Aggregates*- collections of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations. 3. *Category*- people who share one or more attributes but who lack a sense of common identity or belonging. 4. *Primary Groups*- the people who are most important to our sense of self; members' relationships are typically characterized by face-to-face interaction, high levels of cooperation and intense feelings of belonging. These represent the most important "looking glasses" in the formation of our social selves and constitute our "significant others." 5. *Secondary Groups*- groups that are larger and less intimate that primary groups; members' relationships are usually organized around a specific goal and are often temporary. These could be coworkers, college classes, athletic organizations, etc. These can sometimes generate primary group ties as well. 6 *Consequential Strangers*- people we may not think of as mattering much to our sense of happiness or well-being but who nonetheless play and important role in our otherwise fragmented postmodern lives. These people are not strangers but are more likely to be acquaintances from the places we work, play or conduct business; people we who become familiar and essential parts of our everyday lives. They serve as social anchors just as our close friends and family do.

Emotional Shield

A person, typically of a subordinate status, that will step in to deal with a difficult situation when needed.

Saturated Self

A postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources.

Bureaucracy (Weber)

A type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality and formal written communication. They are everywhere in our lives. They are the ultimate rational group. The goals of a bureaucracy: 1. Standardize everything including rules and regulations. 2. Have employees who are specialized. 3. Decrease emotions, superstitions, spirituality, wonder and curiousness to avoid biases. The goal is to be emotionless. 4. Set hierarchy with certain statuses that have an authority attached. The status is not attached to the specific person but instead the position to allow for replacement. 5. Treat a customer objectively and do not show favoritism. **Standardization makes everything move/work more efficiently and rationally.

Crime

A violation of a norm that has been codified into law and for which you can be arrested and imprisoned. *Uniform Crime Report*- an official measure crime in the United States, produced by the FBI's official tabulation of every crime reported by more than 18,000 law enforcement agencies. It is used to track the crime index or the eight offenses considered especially reprehensible in our society. (see below) Although the UCR has shown to be flawed it is useful in helping track trends in overall crime as well as particular patterns; it also records the number of arrests compared with the number of crimes committed, which is the most traditional measure of police effectiveness. Types of crime: 1. *Property Crime*- a crime that does not involve violence, including burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft and arson. 2. *Violent Crime*- a crime in which violence is either the objective or the means to an end, including murder, rape, aggravated assault and robbery.

Cyberbullying

Also sometimes called "electronic aggression" is the use of electronic media (web pages, social networking sites, e-mail, Twitter, cell phones) to tease, harass, threaten or humiliate someone. One of the most common forms of cyberbullying is spreading rumors about someone because online there is almost no limit to how many people might see a nasty comment, even if later it is removed. Cyberbullying is most commonly perpetuated by people the victim knows but can also be done by someone they have never met such as a "troll" (internet bully.) These trolls often enjoy their abusive activities and often continue under different usernames even after they have been blocked.

In-Group Orientation

Among stigmatized individuals (such as the obese or extremely short), the rejection of prevailing judgments or prejudice and the development of new standards that value their group identity. These stigmatized groups often form an alliance that helps members fell a greater sense of self-esteem and unite in fighting against prejudice and discrimination.

The "Self"

An individuals conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from others This includes social and physical characteristics. The concept of a physical, social and moral being. The capacity to view yourself as both the subject and the object.

Positive Deviance

Are actions considered deviant within a given context but are later reinterpreted as appropriate or even historic.

Discreditable vs. Discredited

Discreditable is when we are trying to hide or conceal our deviance. Discredited is when our deviance is already known.

Role-Taking Emotions

Emotions such as sympathy, embarrassment or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or group and respond accordingly.

Social Influence

Exerting group control over others' decisions.

Expressions Given

Expressions that are intentional and usually verbal such as utterances.

Copresence

Face-to-face interaction or being in the presence of others. However we are now finding ourselves in situations outside physical copresence, aided by rapidly developing technologies (such as video conferencing.)

Psychosexual Stages of Development (Freud)

Four distinct stages of development of the self between birth and adulthood; personality quirks are a result of being fixated, or stuck, at any stage. Each stage is associated with a different erogenous zone. A child passes through the first three stages between the ages of one and five. The fourth stage begins around the age of twelve. Few people actually complete the final stage to maturity.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

Freud's theory of the unconscious mind as composed of an interrelated system (id, ego, superego) that underlies human behavior. This emphasizes childhood and sexual development as indelible influences on an individual's identity, and in turn how society is upheld through the transformation of human instincts. 1. *Id*- the part of the mind that consists of basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive psychic energy. It's main goal is to achieve pleasure and avoid pain in all situations. It is the selfish and unrealistic part of the mind. 2. *Ego*- the realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and superego. 3. *Superego*- consists of two components: the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience serves to keep us from engaging in socially undesirable behavior and the ego-ideal upholds our vision of who we believe we should ideally be. It also represents the internalized demands of society.

Stigma (Goffman)

Goffman's term for any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction. Once an individual has been labeled a deviant, he is stigmatized and acquires a "spoiled identity." Having a stigmatized identity-of any sort-makes navigating the social world difficult. Three types of stigma: 1. Physical (including physical or mental impairments) 2. Moral (signs of a flawed character) 3. Tribal (membership in a discredited or oppressed group)

Dramaturgy (Erving Goffman)

Goffman's theory of the presentation of self; we are like actors on a stage whose performance strategies aid in impression management and to project the best sense of me. He saw social life as a sort of con game, in which we work at controlling the impressions that others have of us. The theatrical allusion is entirely intended. Dramaturgical Model: 1. *Front Stage*- the place where you perform for an "audience of others"and manage impressions. 2. *Back Stage*- where you prepare, practice and rehearse (pump ourselves up) for a performance. 3. *Opening Bracket*- this is the signal of a start to an encounter such as a smile, a "Hey how are you doing," etc. 4. *Closing Bracket*- this is the signal to end an encounter such as a goodbye, a wave, etc.

Total Institutions

Institutions in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that they can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones (such as prisons, mental hospitals, cults or even boarding schools, nursing homes, monasteries and the military.) Relatively few adults experience resocialization to the degree of total institution. This is a type of extreme social control and we can sometimes see self-policing as a result. To experience this it takes three things: 1. *Total Subordination*- creating the keepers and the kept. 2. *Total Authority*- maintaining the allusion of whose teaching whom and who is in charge. 3. *Isolation*- involving both physical and emotional isolation becoming a 24/7 drastic socialization process.

Dialectical or Dual Nature of Self

Mead's idea that we experience the self as both subject and object, the "I" and the "me." The two components are inseparable and are united to form a single self in all of us. Taking the role of the particular other and seeing the perspective of the generalized other creates the development of the self. 1. *The "I" (subject/in the moment part)*- one's sense of agency, action or power. The initiator or formulator of action. The "I" is the data coming in. 2. *The "Me" (object/the reflective part)*- seeing the self as a distinct object to be perceived by others (and by the "I".) Internalized social standards. The "Me" is reflecting on the situation.

Status

Microsociological Level A position in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations (they can be formal like president, professor, doctor or can be or informal like class clown, conscience of the group.) 1. *Ascribed*- a status that is inborn; usually difficult or impossible to change. (such as socioeconomic status) 2. *Embodied*- a status that is generated by physical characteristics. 3. *Achieved*- a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others. 4. *Master*- a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess. These statuses can cause others to judge us according to the attached expectations rather than our actual attributes. These are evidence based and important for others to see first about the person. It will transcend situations. 5. *Status Set*- a culmination of all the statuses or positions an individual holds. 6. *Stereotyping*- judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people.

Interpersonal Results

Negative- create space and increase distance from others, privacy, an object not worth a second glance. Positive- bring people together, acknowledging others, using open bracket. Moving from negative to positive we need others to see us perform/complete something (such as washing our hands in a public restroom. This is part of our impression management and looking-glass self. When we are uncomfortable in a situation we may do something to deflect such as tell a joke (if we know the person) or ignore and avoid eye contact (is they are a stranger to us.)

Feeling Rules

Norms regarding the expression and display of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation. This is all about impression management, managing your emotions/what you are going to show.

Expressions Given Off

Observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal. These could be facial expressions, mannerisms, body language, etc.

Looking-Glass (Mirror) Self (Charles Cooley- 1902)

Our self is a social product and is imagined! The notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us. This is inaccurate and changing the words can change the sense of self. This is done in three steps: 1. We imagine how we look to others. 2. We imagine other people's judgement of us. 3. We experience some kind of feeling about ourselves based on our perception of other people's judgement.

Passing (Goffman)

Presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group you belong to. Using passing helps members of a stigmatized group conceal their deviant identities in certain social contexts. We try to hide (or pass) by using two different methods: 1. We avoid stigma symbols (things that represent your secret.) 2. We use a disidentifier (a prop you use to tie yourself to normal membership in groups. This would be in the case of discreditable deviants only who are hiding in plain sight. Deviance Disclosure is sometimes adopted when passing fails. We all tell the same stories but use nuances specific to the situation we are in. This is when you move yourself from discreditable to discredited. We do this for three reasons: 1. Cathartic Reasons- when the secret weighs on us we need to get it out to get relief or support. 2. Therapeutic Reasons- we do this so as to not feel alone. 3. Preventive Reasons- when you feel you are going to get caught you try to minimize the damage by giving your own account so as to control the story given and neutralize the stigma.

Primary Socialization

Primary socialization, also called initial socialization, is when a child is developing their sense of self by learning to interact, behave and talk in society through family members, friends and education. During primary socialization, children learn a number of basic things that they will need to function as they grow. These lessons are learned not only by direct teaching, like how to read and write, but also indirectly by watching friends and family. Children can pick up behaviors, traditions and know what is expected from them through directed and indirect interaction.

Secondary Socialization

Secondary socialization can be more difficult to accept or go through. When children are in primary stages, they are accepted unconditionally whether they get things right or not. Once they reach the secondary stage, that is not the case. Teachers and peers are not required to accept someone unconditionally. During this secondary stage, children have to learn to make decisions on which social group they want to fit with and make choices accordingly. This stage of conformity can occur more than once through a child's growth phase. As they mature, change schools, change environments, the requirements to fit into the social circles they desire will change as well. This means that social skill need to be reached at an early age so that a child can be socialized enough to adapt as situations present themselves. Also a process for adults to learn functional things such as skills and techniques for adult roles.

Theories of Deviance

See below:

Expressions of Behavior

Small actions such as an eye roll or head nod that serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others.

Virtual Communities

Social groups whose interactions are mediated through information technologies, particularly the internet.

Two-fold Process of Socialization (1997)

Socialization is a two-fold process. It includes the process by which a society, culture, or group teaches individuals to become functioning members, and the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs and norms of the social group. Socialization thus works on both an individual and a social level, we learn our societies way of life and make it our own. It captures 2 main goals: 1. Teaches the skills necessary to to satisfy basic human needs and to defend themselves from danger, so society will continue to exist. 2. Teaches the norms and values of society to encourage conformity and adherence to sanctions. Also to maintain social control.

Self vs. Identity

The "self" is you seeing yourself as a unique individual who moves from context to context and is a more permanent overview. The "identity" focuses more on you in that moment, it is more fluid in nature and changes from situation to situation.

Power

The ability to control the actions of others. 1. *Coercive*- power that is backed by the threat of force. 2. *Influential*- power that is supported by persuasion.

Rationalization

The application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns.

Conformity

The attitudes, behaviors and appearances that follow and maintain the standards of a group. When broken sanctions can be instituted and may be positive or negative in nature. There are three levels of conformity: 1. Compliance (Low)- this is driven by deterrents, fear of punishment or promise of tangible reward. 2. Identification (Medium)- this is when you abide by certain rules to maintain relationships and/or loyalty. 3. Internalization (High)- also known as rehabilitation, this is when you follow rules because it's whats right, the rule is just and you want to be a good person.

Thomas Theorem (W.I. Thomas- 1928)

The classic formulation of the way individuals determine reality, whereby "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." Because we encounter ambiguous situations every day, many meanings are possible. The way we define each situation, then, becomes its reality. *Definition of the Situation*- an agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance; this consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with others and realize goals.

Mind, Self and Society (George Mead- 1930)

The development of the "sense of self" is created through social interaction and the process begins in childhood-that children begin to develop a sense of self at about the same time that they began to learn language. The self unfolds in three fluid stages as we move through childhood. (Primary/Anticipatory) The stages are not directly related to the age of the child but instead the development level of interaction they are at. 1. *Preparatory Stage (Birth to Age 3)*- the first stage in development when children learn to mimic or imitate others. During this stage they do not attach meanings to actions but are learning causal effects. This is when they learn and understand they have a name. 2. *Play Stage (After Age 3)*- the second stage of development wherein children pretend to play the role of the particular or significant other. They begin to take on roles with attached behaviors/meanings. They begin learning about future roles, they practice roles and take on fantasy roles. At this stage they are unregulated by rules, don't care about right and wrong and have no time constraints. They only take on one role at a time. This stage is very chaotic and uncoordinated. The self is not coherent or crystallized yet. 3. *Game Stage*- the third stage of development wherein children play organized games and take on the perspective of the generalized other. This stage is the product of consistency and involves activities with rules and regulations. It requires simultaneous complex role taking and putting yourself in another's shoes. They must take on multiple perspectives to be successful. Realize where they are in regards to everyone else.

Foreground of Deviance (Katz)

The deviant's own in-the-moment experience of committing a deviant act. Katz looked at how emotionally seductive crime can be for some as it produces a a particular type of rush that becomes the very reason for carrying out the act. This can even lead to them feeling morally superior to their victims. Katz's foreground model of deviance deepens our appreciation for the complexity of deviant behavior and reminds us that social actors are not mere products of their environment but active participants in creating meaningful experiences for themselves, even if harmful to others.

Impression Management

The effort to control the impressions we make on others (both verbal and nonverbal) so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics. There is a performer and an audience. The audience does not have to "buy what you are selling." We "fake it until we make it." We present different selves in different situations and the responses of others to those selves continually shape and mold our definition of the situation and self. 1. *Front*- the setting or scene of a performance that helps establish the definition of the situation. 2. *Region*- the context in which the performance takes place, including location, decor and props. 3. *Personal Front*- the performance tactics we use to present ourselves to others including appearance, costume and manner as well as gender, race and age. 4. *Team Performances*- working together to produce a performance, can be a ritual and a team member can step in to uphold the facade. 5. *Breech*- a mistake made during the performance that may intentional or unintentional. The audience may try to help and "save face" or repair your self to get over that breech. We can also be sanctioned as well. 6. *Cooling the Mark Out*- when an "other" intervenes in a performance and uses behaviors that help you to save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact. 7. *Face*- is the esteem in which an individual is held by others.

Iron Cage

The irrationality of rationality. These are the negative outcomes and dysfunction seen. 1. Inefficiency- speeding up causes more mistakes. 2. Homogenization- by emphasizing predictability things can become too similar or even the same. 3. Dehumanization- causes learned helplessness (creates dependence on things/machines instead of learning how to go without) and false friendliness (serious emotion management and deep acting on the employees part.)

Authority

The legitimate right to yield power. 1. *Traditional*- authority based in custom, birthright or divine right. 2. *Legal-Rational*- authority based in laws, rules and procedures, not in the heredity or personality of any individual leader. 3. *Charismatic*- authority based in the perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader.

Prison Subculture

The more a correctional environment fits the descriptors of a total institution the more likely there is to be a strong inmate subculture, and the more likely inmates are to be "prisonized" to it. This creates a very strong pattern of mortification of self. - Not all inmates become involved in the subculture though. - Back Markets can develop and are quite common in prisons. As rules and regulations change within the system those black markets will adapt and change accordingly.

Internalization

The process by which people accept the norms, values, beliefs and language that their socializers are attempting to pass on. We receive a lot of contradictory information and sometimes reject their socializing of us.

Honor Killing

The murder of a family member- usually female- who is believed to have brought dishonor to her family.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits. It is a complex relationship. Nature provides a biological window through which social and moral development occurs.

Group Dynamics

The patterns of interactions between groups and individuals. 1. *Dyad*- a two-person social group. 2. *Triad*- a three person social group. 3. *In-Group*- a group that one identifies with and feels loyalty toward. Membership can be a source of prejudice and discrimination based on class, race, gender, sexual orientation, religion or political opinion. 4. *Out-Group*- groups toward which an individual feels opposition, rivalry or hostility. At their worst, in-group/out-group dynamics create the backdrop for such social tragedies as slavery and genocide. 5. *Reference Group*- a group that provides a standard of comparison against which we evaluate ourselves. We often use our families as a reference group and if we don't see ourselves as having the same desirable qualities, we may adopt a negative self-image. It can also be a group we aspire to belong to but are not yet members of. 6. *Group Cohesion*- the sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel towards a group to which they belong. It tends to rely heavily on interpersonal factors such as shared values and demographic traits like race, age, gender or class. It also tends to rely on an attraction to the group as a whole or to certain individuals as exemplars of the group. 7. *Groupthink*- in very cohesive groups, the tendency to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement.

Agents of Socialization

The person or thing teaching us the lessons, helping to shape our sense of self and how to respond to the social and physical environment. -Can be parents, teachers, friends, social groups and institutions but can also be things like books, media, television, etc. -Can teach us roles, gender identity, etc. -Can be both manifest (intentional lessons) and latent functions (unintentional lessons that are hidden from us.)

Generalized Other

The perspectives and expectations of a network of others (or of society in general) that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior. It represents an internalized sense of the total expectations of others in a variety of settings, regardless of whether or not we have encountered those others before. All affects the sense of self. This happens in the "backstage area" and is the prepping stage.

Particular Other

The perspectives and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes.

Social Construction

The process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists.

Deviance Avowal (Turner)

The process by which an individual self-identifies as deviant and initiates her own labeling process. It may be useful to some to conceive of deviance as a role rather than as an isolated behavior that violates a single norm. This can also help a person avoid the pressures of having to adopt certain conventional norms or "neutralization of commitment."

Socialization

The process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs and norms of a given society and learn to function as a productive member of that society. It is necessary for individuals to function in society and if you choose not to conform you can be sanctioned. However people can make choices. Through socilaization we develop a "sense of self." We learn to see ourselves as both the subject and the object and that we are unique. This is not always a smooth process however because we have agency. Factors: -history and the time period you are raised in -the location you are in and surrounding culture -is an ongoing process until the day you die and consists of many different layers **Main focus of Symbolic Interactionists

Emotion Work (Labor)

The process of evoking, suppressing or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion. This can sometimes cause alienation from one's own feelings. (Marx's theory of alienation) This can include both surface and deep acting. Sometimes the person will use an emotional memory to help elicit a response in their current situation, such as remembering something sad to help you cry in your current situation; this is something actors do.

Resocialization

The process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as part of a transition in life (such as marriage, divorce, widowed, new job, move to a new area, etc.) There can be even more serious cases when someone is aging or facing a serious illness.

Anticipatory Socialization

The process, facilitated by social interactions, in which non-group-members learn to take on the values and standards of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry into the group and help them interact competently once they have been accepted by it.

Roles

The set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status. If a person can play a number of different roles well it can enhance their sense of self. Different audiences can have different expectations. This is the "Me" when talking about the looking-glass self. 1. *Role Performance*- how did you meet or not meet the expectations of your role. This is the "I" when talking about the looking-glass self. 2.. *Role Conflict*- experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations. 3. *Role Strain*- experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role. Both role conflict and strain occur when a role performance fails to meet the role expectations. This is when you see conversation between the "I" and the "Me." 4. *Role Exit*- the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy. 5. *Role Set*- all the expectations for all the roles we hold.

McDonaldization

The term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization. Can be looked at as commercializing culture. Goals of Mcdonaldization: 1. Efficiency- achieve goals as quickly as possible with standardization. 2. Predictability- helps to make decisions faster when you know what to expect ahead of time. 3. Calculability- using quantitative data instead of qualitative data to make decisions/all about the numbers. 4. Substitution of non-human technology for human technology- having machines do the work instead of a human to cut down on both costs, time and mistakes.

Social Network

The web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect the individual. These networks can work for us or against us. *Social Ties*- connections between individuals. These can be direct or indirect.

Social Control

These are the methods used to teach, persuade or force group members to comply. They do not reward bad behavior.

Mortification of Self (Goffman)

This involves the taking away of your "self" and can include degradation ceremonies. The purpose is to create a "blank self" so you can tell him who he now is and how he can become a functioning member of the institution. This is done in two steps: 1. Stripping away of your identity including physical markers and symbols you use. This can mean shaving off facial hair, cutting hair, being forced to only wear uniforms, etc. 2. Create their new identity and replace with the standard labels; essentially socializing them into being who you want them to be without taking any consideration for what they want. This can sometimes cause extreme dependence however making them afraid to return to their old "self."

Suspended Identity

This is the process by which a first time prison inmate socializes themselves into the system. There are four steps: 1. *Pre-Prison Self*- this is the first stage when "anticipatory socialization" happens. They see themselves as different from/better than other inmates. They are typically scared incarceration will change or hurt them. 2. *Self Insulation*- this is the second stage when a prisoner decides that they will keep to themselves and although they are not like the other prisoners, if threatened or attacked, they will defend themselves. If placed in an environment with lack of privacy or alone time it will greatly affect their self insulation. 3. *Dualistic Self*- this is the third stage whereby the prisoner separates himself into two different people, the person he was before prisoner and his prison self. He essentially becomes an actor in a role. They will also begin to interact with others during this stage. It is not uncommon for them to then alienate their outside friends and loved ones to help them maintain their facade. 4. *Doubt*- this is the fourth and final stage that occurs around the time of their release from prison. They begin to doubt whether they will be able to stop faking it and return to their pre-prison selves. They are afraid they will bring part of that prison self into their home environment and possibly hurt someone or get in trouble and have to return.

Outsiders (Becker)

Those labeled as deviant and subsequently segregated from "normal society." These individuals choose to be called deviant and may celebrate membership in their deviant group. This can be outlaw bikers, rock musicians or eco-warriors. These people can sometimes continue to live in mainstream society, passing as "normals" and continuing to work and participate in everyday life. Other deviant identities may become master status thus preventing them from interacting along conventional lines; when this happens a person's deviance may be thought to reveal his underlying nature.

Hidden Curriculum

Values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling.

Reciprocal Process

You are both socialized and socializing at the same time. This allows us to know who we are

Dark Side of Conformity (Quiet Rage)

Zimbardo's prison experiment at Stanford University in 1971. Some notes on the film Quiet Rage: 1. The authority figures begin to influence participants decisions that blatantly go against their moral code by using things such as uniforms, white lab coats, etc. 2. Initially there is a degradation process or the participants to force conformity to authority. 3. When participants are playing a role deep acting can occur and some will do things that are out of character for themselves. This can then cause escalation on both parts to really play their role well. 4. They will divide groups and isolate/conquer the individuals. 5. Their thinking starts to become distorted. 6. Eventually by participating and becoming deeply involved in the role, you can even add to the script. 7. An evil place can win over good people. The Lucifer Effect (Zimbardo)- each step in the process gets easier to perform. 1. You must take the first small step 2. Dehumanization of the target (looking at them as an object instead of a person) 3. Deindividuation (or anonymity) of the perpetuator 4. Diffusion of personal responsibility. 5. Blind obedience to authority.