Sociology Chapter 10: Race and Ethnicity

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's group is superior to all other groups. The ethnocentric individual uses his or her own in-group as the standard against which all other groups are compared.

Institutional racism can exist even without prejudice being the cause.

When racism is a characteristic of the institutions and not necessarily of the individuals within the institution.

Characteristics of a racial or ethnic minority group

1. The minority group possesses characteristics (such as race, ethnicity, sexual preference, age, religion, or even gender) that are popularly regarded as different from those of the dominant group. 2. The minority group suffers prejudice and discrimination by the dominant group. 3. Membership in the group is frequently ascribed rather than achieved, although either form of status can be the basis for being identified as a minority. 4. Members of a minority group feel a strong sense of group solidarity. There is a "consciousness of kind" or "we" feeling. This bond grows from common cultural heritage and the shared experience of being a recipient of prejudice and discrimination.

Laissez-faire/symbolic racism

1. The subtle but persistent negative stereotyping of minorities, particularly black Americans, especially in the media 2. A tendency to blame blacks themselves for the gap between blacks and whites in socioeconomic standing, occupational achievement, and educational achievement 3. Clear resistance to meaningful policy efforts designed to ameliorate racially oppressive social conditions and practices in the US.

Race

A group treated as distinct in society based on certain characteristics, some of which are biological, that have been assigned or attributed social importance. Because of presumed biologically or culturally inferior characteristics, defined by powerful groups in society, is often singled out for differential and unfair treatment. Defined by how the groups have been treated and labeled historically and socially.

Assimilation

A process by which a minority becomes socially, economically, and culturally absorbed within the dominant society. Assumes that to become fully fledged members of society, minority groups must adopt as much of the dominant society's culture as possible, particularly its language, mannerisms, and goals for success, and thus give up much of its own culture.

Racialization

A process whereby some social category, such as a social class or nationality, takes on what society perceives to be racial characteristics. Ex. Jews are an ethnic group that became racialized by Hitler.

Authoritarian personality theory

A psychological theory of prejudice that argues that individuals who possess an authoritarian personality are more likely to be prejudiced against minorities than non-authoritarian individuals. Characterized by a tendency to to rigidly categorize other people, as well as inclinations to submit to authority, strictly conform, be very intolerant of ambiguity, and be inclined toward superstition. The authoritarian person is more likely to stereotype or categorize another and thus readily places members of minority groups into convenient and oversimplified categories or stereotypes.

Scapegoat theory

A psychological theory of prejudice that argues that, historically, members of the dominant group in the US have harbored various frustrations in their desire to achieve social and economic success. As a result of this frustration, they vent their anger in the form of aggression, substituting minority groups for the original perception of the frustration. Ex. A white person perceiving that he/she was a denied a job because "too many" Mexican immigrants were in the country. (Mexican Americans would be the scapegoat).

Ethnic group

A social category of people who share a common culture, for example, a common language or dialect, a common nationality, a common religion, common norms, practices, customs, and history. Develop because of their unique historical and social experiences.

Symbolic interaction theory

A sociological theory of prejudice that addresses two issues: the role of social interaction in reducing racial and ethnic hostility and how race and ethnicity are socially constructed.

Functionalist theory

A sociological theory of prejudice that argued that for race and ethnic relations to be functional and thus contribute to the harmonious conduct and stability of society, racial and ethnic minorities must assimilate into that society.

Conflict theory

A sociological theory of prejudice that says that class-based conflict is an inherent and fundamental part of social interaction. Argue that class inequality must be reduced to lessen racial and ethnic conflict in society.

Color blindness allows whites to hide white privilege.

Allows whites to define themselves as politically and racially tolerant as they proclaim adherence to a belief system that does not see or judge individuals by "the color of their skin."

Racial profiling

An example of institutional racism in the criminal justice system. African American and Hispanic people are arrested and serve longer sentences considerably more often than are whites and Asians.

Stereotype

An oversimplified set of beliefs about members of a social group or social stratum. Based on the tendency of humans to categorize a person based on a narrow range of perceived characteristics. Presumed to describe the "typical" member of some social group. Usually, but not always, incorrect.

Minority group

Any distinct group in society that shares common group characteristics and is forced to occupy low status in society because of prejudice and discrimination.

Intersection perspective

Argues that both class and race have separate effects as well as combined, or "intersecting" effects of racism, classism (elitism), and also sexism in the oppression of people. The effects of gender and race are intertwined with the effects of class.

Contact theory

Argues that interaction and contact between two groups will reduce prejudice within both groups if: 1. The contact must be between individuals of equal status; the parties must interact on equal ground. 2. The contact between equals must be sustained; short-term contact will not decrease prejudice. 3. Social norms favoring equality must be agreed upon by the participants.

Digital racial divide

Divide between households of different races with Internet access.

Stereotype interchangeability

Holds that stereotypes, especially negative ones, are often interchangeable from one social class to another, from one racial or ethnic group to another, from a racial or ethnic group to a social class, or from a social class to a gender.

Who is defined as a race is as much a political question as it is a biological or cultural question.

In addition to physical and cultural differences, race is created and maintained by the most powerful group(s) in society. This definition also incorporates presumed group differences in the context of social and historical experience.

Government recognition of race

It has been the federal government, and not much the racial or ethnic group itself, that has defined who is a member of the group and who is not. Official recognition by the government matters in order to get some resources specific for certain racial groups.

Old-fashioned/traditional/Jim Crow racism

Obvious, overt racism, such as physical assaults from beatings to lynchings.

Discrimination

Overt negative and unequal treatment of members of some social group or stratum solely because of their relationship in that group or stratum (behaviors).

Racial inequality

Results when a powerful group defines another group as inferior because of some biological characteristics, and it uses its power to create social institutions that treat this group unfairly.

Race is "socially constructed."

Society assigns people to racial categories because of opinion and social experience.

Salience principle

States that we categorize people on the basis of what appears initially prominent and obvious about them. Ex. skin color. The choice of salient characteristics is culturally determined.

Racial-ethnic stereotypes

Stereotypes based on race or ethnicity.

Aversive racism

Subtle, covert, and non obvious racism. Ex. consistently avoiding interaction with someone of another race or ethnicity.

Ethnic identity

The definition an ethnic group has of itself as sharing a common cultural bond. Based on the group's unique historical and social experiences. May grow stronger when groups face prejudice or hostility from other groups. Possible threat or competition from other groups may unite an ethnic group around common political and economic interests. Strengthened by exclusionary practices by more powerful groups.

Prejudice

The evaluation of a social group and the individuals within it, based on conceptions about the social group that are held despite facts that disprove them; the beliefs involve both prejudgment and misjudgment. Usually defined as negative predispositions (attitudes). A negative prejudice against someone not in one's own group (out-group) is often accompanied by a positive prejudice in favor of someone who is in one's own group (in-group).

Dominant group

The group that assigns a racial or ethnic group to subordinate status in society.

Color-blind racism

The individual affected by this type of racism prefers to ignore legitimate racial-ethnic, cultural, and other differences and insists that the race problems in the US will go away if only race is ignored all together. Also believes that race differences in the US are merely an illusion and that race is not real.

Pluralism

The maintenance and persistence of one's culture, language, mannerisms, practices, etc. Contrasts with assimilation.

Institutional racism

The negative treatment and oppression of one racial or ethnic group by society's existing institutions based on the presumed inferiority of the oppressed group. A form of racism that exists at the level of social structure. The key to understanding this is seeing that dominant groups have the economic and political power to subjugate the minority group, even if they do not have the explicit intent of being prejudiced or discriminating against others.

Racism

The perception and treatment of a racial or ethnic group, or member of that group, as intellectually, socially, and culturally inferior to one's own group. Involves negative attitudes that are sometimes linked with negative behavior.

Racial formation

The process by which a group comes to be defined as a race. This social construction of race is supported through official social institutions such as the law and schools. This concept emphasizes the importance of social institutions in producing and maintaining the meaning of race; it also connects the process of racial formation to the exploitation of so-called racial groups. Ex. African Americans being counted as 3/5 of a person during slavery served to the political and economic needs of white Americans.

Residential segregation

The spatial separation of racial and ethnic groups into different residential areas.

Out-group homogeneity effect

Where all members of any out-group are perceived to be similar or even identical to each other, and differences among them are perceived to be minor or nonexistent. Ex. Middle Easterners are called "Arabs" despite what country they are specifically from.