Sociology chapter 16 Education

formal education

the learning of academic facts and concepts

What are the major factors that affect education systems throughout the world? Resources and money Student interest Teacher interest Transportation

Resources and money (Rational: Any education, public or private, must be financed and paid for. Public one is usually paid with taxes and some government help, the private one is fee based. Resources and money are major factors that affect education because its quality depends on them. If a public school receives adequate financial help it can function better, get better school material, have more facilities, pay the teachers well. On the other hand, many schools worldwide are struggling nowadays because of lack of funding, they can not afford nice rooms and the technology at school is often outdated. Therefore, resources and money are of great importance as they determine the quality of education worldwide.)

Conflict theorists see IQ tests as being biased. Why? They are scored in a way that is subject to human error. They do not give children with learning disabilities a fair chance to demonstrate their true intelligence. They don't involve enough test items to cover multiple intelligences. They reward affluent students with questions that assume knowledge associated with upper-class culture.

They reward affluent students with questions that assume knowledge associated with upper-class culture.

. What term describes the assignment of students to specific education programs and classes on the basis of test scores, previous grades, or perceived ability? Hidden curriculum Labeling Self-fulfilling prophecy Tracking

Tracking (Rational: Tracking is the technique that was used in the schools for the separation of the students according to their ability, talent and achievements in a classroom.The groups of the students were made for the entire schools population having same ability only. The groups were defined on condition whether the student is over-achiever, under-achiever or average-achiever.)

Identify historical issues in education:

Until the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, schools had operated under the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, which allowed racial segregation in schools and private businesses (the case dealt specifically with railroads) and introduced the much maligned phrase "separate but equal" into the U.S. lexicon. The 1954 Brown v. Board decision overruled this, declaring that state laws that had established separate schools for Black and White students were, in fact, unequal and unconstitutional. While the ruling paved the way toward civil rights, it was also met with contention in many communities. In Arkansas in 1957, the governor mobilized the state National Guard to prevent Black students from entering Little Rock Central High School. President Eisenhower, in response, sent members of the 101st Airborne Division from Kentucky to uphold the students' right to enter the school. In 1963, almost ten years after the ruling, Governor George Wallace of Alabama used his own body to block two Black students from entering the auditorium at the University of Alabama to enroll in the school. Wallace's desperate attempt to uphold his policy of "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever," stated during his 1963 inauguration (PBS 2000) became known as the "Stand in the Schoolhouse Door." He refused to grant entry to the students until a general from the Alabama National Guard arrived on President Kennedy's order.

Allowing a student to move to the next grade regardless of whether or not they have met the requirements for that grade is called ____________. affirmative action social control social promotion socialization

social promotion (rational: Social promotion is the practise of advancing a student to the next grade at the end of the current academic year, regardless of whether they have mastered the required curriculum or if they have a history of frequent absences. This is done to maintain the pupils' desired social grouping their age-related peers within the classroom. This idea involves promoting kids to the following grade even if they don't match the requirements for that grade. Opponents of this method claim that kids shouldn't advance to the following grade if they haven't acquired the competencies needed to "graduate" from the one before. In many schools today, social promotion the act of moving kids to the next grade even though their test results don't justify it is a common practise)

hidden curriculum

the type of nonacademic knowledge that people learn through informal learning and cultural transmission

social placement

the use of education to improve one's social standing

cultural transmission

the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture

Head Start program

-which is still active and successful today, was developed to give low-income students an opportunity to make up the preschool deficit discussed in Coleman's findings. The program provides academic-centered preschool to students of low socioeconomic status. -resulted from The findings in the Coleman Report .

Identify differences in educational resources around the world

Analysts determined that the nations and city-states at the top of the rankings (for education) had several things in common. For one, they had well-established standards for education with clear goals for all students. They also recruited teachers from the top 5 to 10 percent of university graduates each year, which is not the case for most countries. Researchers noted that educational resources, including money and quality teachers, are not distributed equitably in the United States. In the top-ranking countries, limited access to resources did not necessarily predict low performance. Analysts also noted what they described as "resilient students," or those students who achieve at a higher level than one might expect given their social background. In Shanghai and Singapore, the proportion of resilient students is about 70 percent. In the United States, it is below 30 percent. These insights suggest that the United States' educational system may be on a descending path that could detrimentally affect the country's economy and its social landscape With public education in the United States under such intense criticism, why is it that Singapore, South Korea, and especially Finland (which is culturally most similar to us), have such excellent public education? Over the course of thirty years, the country has pulled itself from among the lowest rankings by the Organization of Economic Cooperation (OEDC) to first in 2012, and remains, as of 2014, in the top five. Contrary to the rigid curriculum and long hours demanded of students in South Korea and Singapore, Finnish education often seems paradoxical to outside observers because it appears to break a lot of the rules we take for granted. It is common for children to enter school at seven years old, and children will have more recess and less hours in school than U.S. children—approximately 300 less hours. Their homework load is light when compared to all other industrialized nations (nearly 300 fewer hours per year in elementary school). There are no gifted programs, almost no private schools, and no high-stakes national standardized tests (Laukkanen 2008; LynNell Hancock 2011). Prioritization is different than in the United States. There is an emphasis on allocating resources for those who need them most, high standards, support for special needs students, qualified teachers taken from the top 10 percent of the nation's graduates and who must earn a Master's degree, evaluation of education, balancing decentralization and centralization. "We used to have a system which was really unequal," stated the Finnish Education Chief in an interview. "My parents never had a real possibility to study and have a higher education. We decided in the 1960s that we would provide a free quality education to all. Even universities are free of charge. Equal means that we support everyone and we're not going to waste anyone's skills." As for teachers, "We don't test our teachers or ask them to prove their knowledge. But it's true that we do invest in a lot of additional teacher training even after they become teachers" (Gross-Loh 2014). Yet over the past decade Finland has consistently performed among the top nations on the PISA. Finland's school children didn't always excel. Finland built its excellent, efficient, and equitable educational system in a few decades from scratch, and the concept guiding almost every educational reform has been equity. The Finnish paradox is that by focusing on the bigger picture for all, Finland has succeeded at fostering the individual potential of most every child. "We created a school system based on equality to make sure we can develop everyone's potential. Now we can see how well it's been working. Last year the OECD tested adults from twenty-four countries measuring the skill levels of adults aged sixteen to sixty-five on a survey called the PIAAC (Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies), which tests skills in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments. Finland scored at or near the top on all measures."

sorting

classifying students based on academic merit or potential

cultural capital

cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture

What factors into the top schools in education, top schools?

Analysts determined that the nations and city-states at the top of the rankings had several things in common. For one, they had well-established standards for education with clear goals for all students. They also recruited teachers from the top 5 to 10 percent of university graduates each year, which is not the case for most countries Finally, there is the issue of social factors. One analyst from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the organization that created the PISA test, attributed 20 percent of performance differences and the United States' low rankings to differences in social background. Researchers noted that educational resources, including money and quality teachers, are not distributed equitably in the United States. In the top-ranking countries, limited access to resources did not necessarily predict low performance. Analysts also noted what they described as "resilient students," or those students who achieve at a higher level than one might expect given their social background. In Shanghai and Singapore, the proportion of resilient students is about 70 percent. In the United States, it is below 30 percent. These insights suggest that the United States' educational system may be on a descending path that could detrimentally affect the country's economy and its social landscape.

Explain and discuss how conflict theory views issues of education:

Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality. Rather, they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Where functionalists see education as serving a beneficial role, conflict theorists view it more negatively. To them, educational systems preserve the status quo and push people of lower status into obedience. The fulfillment of one's education is closely linked to social class. Students of low socioeconomic status are generally not afforded the same opportunities as students of higher status, no matter how great their academic ability or desire to learn. Such a situation leads to social class reproduction, extensively studied by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. He researched how cultural capital, or cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency that helps us navigate a culture, alters the experiences and opportunities available to French students from different social classes. Members of the upper and middle classes have more cultural capital than do families of lower-class status. As a result, the educational system maintains a cycle in which the dominant culture's values are rewarded. Instruction and tests cater to the dominant culture and leave others struggling to identify with values and competencies outside their social class. For example, there has been a great deal of discussion over what standardized tests such as the SAT truly measure. Many argue that the tests group students by cultural ability rather than by natural intelligence. Conflict theorists point to tracking, a formalized sorting system that places students on "tracks" (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. While educators may believe that students do better in tracked classes because they are with students of similar ability and may have access to more individual attention from teachers, conflict theorists feel that tracking leads to self-fulfilling prophecies in which students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations. To conflict theorists, schools play the role of training working-class students to accept and retain their position as lower members of society. They argue that this role is fulfilled through the disparity of resources available to students in richer and poorer neighborhoods as well as through testing.

Which theory of education focuses on the ways in which education maintains the status quo? Conflict theory Feminist theory Functionalist theory Symbolic interactionism

Conflict theory

Which of the following is not a manifest function of education? Cultural innovation Courtship Social placement Socialization

Courtship (Rational: The courtship is not the manifest function of education because courtship is termed as the activities of the people that involve orthodox thinking in them. The manifest function of education involves the innovation of the person socially and culturally and also it includes the socialization of the individual and its esteem in the social placement rather than the orthodox or the old thing of the individual.)

How was The COVID-19 pandemic the most disruptive events in American education:

Educators at every level went through stages of intense stress, lack of information, and difficult choices. In many cities and states, families, school districts, governments, and health departments found themselves on different sides of debates. Countless arguments raged over attendance, mental health, instructional quality, safety, testing, academic integrity, and the best ways to move forward as the situation began to improve. College students and their families went through similar disruptions and debates, compounded by the fact that many students felt that the high costs of particular colleges were not worth it. Overall college enrollment dipped significantly during the pandemic (Koenig 2020). Students underperformed, stress and mental health problems increased, and overall plans and pathways were interrupted. Perhaps most damaging was that the pandemic amplified many of the other challenges in education, meaning that under-resourced districts and underserved students were impacted even more severely than others. On the other hand, once instructors and students adapted to the technological and social differences, many began to employ new techniques to ensure more caretaking, connection, differentiated instruction, and innovation. Most agree that education will be changed for years following the pandemic, but it might not all be for the worse.

Explain and discuss how feminism views issues of education:

Feminist theory aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education, as well as their societal repercussions. educational systems are characterized by unequal treatment and opportunity for women. When women face limited opportunities for education, their capacity to achieve equal rights, including financial independence, are limited. Feminist theory seeks to promote women's rights to equal education Women in the United States have been relatively late, historically speaking, to be granted entry to the public university system. In fact, it wasn't until the establishment of Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972 that discriminating on the basis of sex in U.S. education programs became illegal. In the United States, there is also a post-education gender disparity between what male and female college graduates earn. A study released in May 2011 showed that, among men and women who graduated from college between 2006 and 2010, men out-earned women by an average of more than $5,000 each year. First-year job earnings for men averaged $33,150; for women the average was $28,000 (Godofsky, Zukin, and van Horn 2011). Similar trends are seen among salaries of professionals in virtually all industries.

Explain and discuss how functionalism views issues of education:

Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which are the hidden and unintended functions. Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and enculturate students. One of the most important U.S. values students in the United States learn is that of individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a whole. Another role of schools, according to functionalist theory, is that of sorting, or classifying students based on academic merit or potential. The most capable students are identified early in schools through testing and classroom achievements. Such students are placed in accelerated programs in anticipation of successful college attendance. Functionalists also contend that school, particularly in recent years, is taking over some of the functions that were traditionally undertaken by family. Society relies on schools to teach about human sexuality as well as basic skills such as budgeting and job applications—topics that at one time were addressed by the family.

Define latent functions of education

Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequences. Examples ( Courtship, Social networks, Group work, Creation of generation gap, Political and social integration)

Define manifest functions of education

Openly stated functions with intended goals There are several major manifest functions associated with education: (Socialization, Transmission of culture, Social control, Social placement, Cultural innovation) The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles. (socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole.) School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day. Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement. College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success.

What term describes the separation of students based on merit? Cultural transmission Social control Sorting Hidden curriculum

Sorting

Identify contemporary issues in education:

Students from wealthy families and those of lower socioeconomic status do not receive the same opportunities. the disparity in how much money families are able to spend on that preparation results in inequities. SAT/ACT-prep courses and tutors are expensive, and not everyone can afford them. As a result, the inequity found in K-12 education may extend to college. Students with disabilities getting unequal education: Since the 1978 implementation of what would become the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), states and local districts have continually increased their investment in the quality of education for students with disabilities. The Act's reauthorization, coupled with No Child Left Behind, added requirements and guidance for states and school districts. Until that point in time, students with intellectual or other disabilities had been steadily improving their achievement, graduation rates, and success in post-high school endeavors. However, significant disparities existed (and persist today) based on race, ethnicity, and also on geography. Beyond the quality of education for students with disabilities, the disparity was often most noticeable in the classification of those students. States varied on which disabilities received services, and how much support was provided. Many students with dyslexia, ADHD, and other disorders are either not diagnosed, not taken seriously, or not given as much support as they require in order to succeed. This can extend into adulthood. For example, ADHD was for years considered only a children's disease, something that people "grew out of." But the disorder can impact people at any age, something that many educators and even some doctors are not aware of. No Child Left Behind's focus on standards and standardized testing extended to students with disabilities as well. A core goal was that students with disabilities would work toward the same standards and take the same tests (with accommodations, if needed) as did students without disabilities. The outcomes were mixed. Test performance for students with disabilities increased, but so did drop outs. There was also evidence that some schools were less welcoming to students with disabilities, as a way to increase average scores (National Council on Disabilities 2004).

. Which theory of education focuses on the labels acquired through the educational process? Conflict theory Feminist theory Functionalist theory Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism (Rational: Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that springs from real-world issues and alludes to specific impacts of dialogue and interaction on people's ability to form mental representations and common sense conclusions for inference and correspondence with others. Symbolic interactionism is a method for examining how people interact with one another by concentrating on the meanings that people give to words and objects in their environment. One of the many theories in the social sciences is symbolic interaction. This idea holds that humans exist in both the physical environment and the symbolic environment. Through the use of mental symbols, symbolic contact is a process that brings mutual meaning and values to life. Therefore, the correct answer is option d. symbolic interactionism.)

New Views On Standardized Tests:

The funding tie-in of the No Child Left Behind Act has led to the social phenomenon commonly called "teaching to the test," which describes when a curriculum focuses on equipping students to succeed on standardized tests, to the detriment of broader educational goals and concepts of learning. At issue are two approaches to classroom education: the notion that teachers impart knowledge that students are obligated to absorb, versus the concept of student-centered learning that seeks to teach children not facts, but problem solving abilities and learning skills. Both types of learning have been valued in the U.S. school system. The former, to critics of "teaching to the test," only equips students to regurgitate facts, while the latter, to proponents of the other camp, fosters lifelong learning and transferable work skills. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the American College Testing (ACT) have for decades served as rites of passage for millions of high school students. Colleges utilize the scores as benchmarks in the admissions process. Since the tests have been important in college admissions, many families place significant emphasis on preparing for them. However, the disparity in how much money families are able to spend on that preparation results in inequities. SAT/ACT-prep courses and tutors are expensive, and not everyone can afford them. As a result, the inequity found in K-12 education may extend to college. For years, college admissions programs have been taking these disparities into account, and have based admissions on factors beyond standardized test scores. However, issues with the tests remain. In 2020, a slate of highly selective colleges eliminated their standardized test requirement for admission, and, in 2021 several colleges expanded and extended their "test-optional" approach.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)

The law decreases the federal role in education. Annual testing is still required, but the achievement and improvement accountability is shifted to the states, which must submit plans and goals regarding their approaches to the U.S. Department of Education for approval. While this aspect of ESSA was delayed for several years under the Trump administration, the Department of Education announced in April, 2020 that Massachusetts had become the first to have its plans approved. The COVID-19 pandemic delayed many states' further action in terms of ESSA approval.

What do nations that are top-ranked in science and math have in common? They are all in Asia. They recruit top teachers. They spend more money per student. They use cutting-edge technology in classrooms.

They recruit top teachers.

"busing."

This program involved bringing students to schools outside their neighborhoods (and therefore schools they would not normally have the opportunity to attend) to bring racial diversity into balance. the goal of further desegregating education.

Describe the concept of universal access to education

This term refers to people's equal ability to participate in an education system. On a world level, access might be more difficult for certain groups based on class or gender (as was the case in the United States earlier in the nation's history, a dynamic we still struggle to overcome) The modern idea of universal access arose in the United States as a concern for people with disabilities. In the United States, one way in which universal education is supported is through federal and state governments covering the cost of free public education.

Head Start program

a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status

tracking

a formalized sorting system that places students on "tracks" (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities

education

a social institution through which a society's children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms

Functionalist theory sees education as serving the needs of _________. families society the individual all of the above

all of the above

Public schools must guarantee that ___________. all students graduate from high school all students receive an equal education per-student spending is equitable the amount spent on each student is equal to that spent regionally

all students receive an equal education

No Child Left Behind Act

an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding

Learning from classmates that most students buy lunch on Fridays is an example of ________. cultural transmission educational access formal education informal education

cultural transmission (Rational: Cultural transmission happens when cultural elements are passed from one person to another. Cultural elements are: language, values, beliefs, attitudes, customs and behaviors. Learning from classmates is adopted behavior and an example of cultural transmission by coping. The person who gathered this piece of information would probably copy their friends and also buy lunch on a Friday. It is a way to show belonging to a particular group of people as opposed to sticking out.)

The 1972 case Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia set a precedent for __________. access to education average spending on students desegregation of schools teacher salary

desegregation of schools

informal education

education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society

School choice advocates promote the idea:

more choice allows parents and students a more effective educational experience that is right for them. They may choose a nontraditional school because it is more aligned with their philosophy, because they've been bullied or had other trouble in their neighborhood school, or because they want to prepare for a specific career (American Federation for Children 2017).

Conflict theorists see sorting as a way to ________. challenge gifted students perpetuate divisions of socioeconomic status help students who need additional support teach respect for authority

perpetuate divisions of socioeconomic status

Homeschooling:

refers to children being educated in their own homes, typically by a parent, instead of in a traditional public or private school system. Proponents of this type of education argue that it provides an outstanding opportunity for student-centered learning while circumventing problems that plague today's education system. Opponents counter that homeschooled children miss out on the opportunity for social development that occurs in standard classroom environments and school settings.

Informal education _________________. describes when students teach their peers refers to the learning of cultural norms only takes place at home relies on a planned instructional process

refers to the learning of cultural norms

Private school options may include:

religious and non-religious options, as well as boarding schools. In some locations, a large number of students engage in these options. For example, in North Carolina, one in five students does not attend a traditional public school.

No Child Left Behind Act:

requires states to test students in grades three through eight. The results of those tests determine eligibility to receive federal funding. Schools that do not meet the standards set by the Act run the risk of having their funding cut. Sociologists and teachers alike have contended that the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act is far more negative than positive, arguing that a "one size fits all" concept cannot apply to education.

Explain and discuss how symbolic interactionism views issues of education:

sees education as one way that labeling theory is seen in action. A symbolic interactionist might say that this labeling has a direct correlation to those who are in power and those who are labeled. For example, low standardized test scores or poor performance in a particular class often lead to a student who is labeled as a low achiever. Such labels are difficult to "shake off," which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy The labeling with which symbolic interactionists concern themselves extends to the very degrees that symbolize completion of education. Credentialism embodies the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications. These certificates or degrees serve as a symbol of what a person has achieved, and allows the labeling of that individual. Indeed, as these examples show, labeling theory can significantly impact a student's schooling. This is easily seen in the educational setting, as teachers and more powerful social groups within the school dole out labels that are adopted by the entire school population.

Plessy v. Ferguson set the precedent that _____________. racial segregation in schools was allowed separate schools for Black and White students were unconstitutional students do not have a right to free speech in public schools students have a right to free speech in public schools

separate schools for Black and White students were unconstitutional

Because she plans on achieving success in marketing, Tammie is taking courses on managing social media. This is an example of ________. cultural innovation social control social placement socialization

social placement (Rational: Social placement is a process of improving or increasing the opportunities to be looked up for in front of the crowd with the help of increasing education and skilling oneself in the domain. Social placement helps individuals in order to improve their position and reputation, as well as at work and with their workers. Generally, it also assists the people who could not complete their education or who didn't have the knowledge about the education courses. Tammie is taking social media management classes because she wants to succeed in marketing. An illustration of social positioning is this. As a result, choice C is the best one.)

Key predictors for student success include ____________. how many school-age siblings the student has socioeconomic status and family background the age of the student when she or he enters kindergarten how many students attend the school

socioeconomic status and family background

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA):

states and local districts have continually increased their investment in the quality of education for students with disabilities. The Act's reauthorization, coupled with No Child Left Behind, added requirements and guidance for states and school districts. Until that point in time, students with intellectual or other disabilities had been steadily improving their achievement, graduation rates, and success in post-high school endeavors. However, significant disparities existed (and persist today) based on race, ethnicity, and also on geography. Beyond the quality of education for students with disabilities, the disparity was often most noticeable in the classification of those students. States varied on which disabilities received services, and how much support was provided. Many students with dyslexia, ADHD, and other disorders are either not diagnosed, not taken seriously, or not given as much support as they require in order to succeed. This can extend into adulthood. For example, ADHD was for years considered only a children's disease, something that people "grew out of." But the disorder can impact people at any age, something that many educators and even some doctors are not aware of.

School choice opponents may argue:

that while the alternative schools may be more effective for those students who need them and are fortunate enough to get in, the money would be better spent in general public schools.

credentialism

the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications

universal access

the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system

grade inflation

the idea that the achievement level associated with an A today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with A-level work a few decades ago

Rewarding students for meeting deadlines and respecting authority figures is an example of ________. a latent function a manifest function informal education transmission of moral education

transmission of moral education

Public school alternatives to traditional schools include:

vocational schools, special education schools, magnet schools, charter schools, alternative schools, early college schools, and virtual schools.

The funding tie-in of the No Child Left Behind Act has led to the social phenomenon commonly called "teaching to the test," which describes:

when a curriculum focuses on equipping students to succeed on standardized tests, to the detriment of broader educational goals and concepts of learning. At issue are two approaches to classroom education: the notion that teachers impart knowledge that students are obligated to absorb, versus the concept of student-centered learning that seeks to teach children not facts, but problem solving abilities and learning skills. Both types of learning have been valued in the U.S. school system. The former, to critics of "teaching to the test," only equips students to regurgitate facts, while the latter, to proponents of the other camp, fosters lifelong learning and transferable work skills.