Sociology Chapter 2

Operational Definition

a clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement -The researcher must give a precise operational definition to the variables so that they can observe and measure them accurately and ensure that their readers have a clear understanding of just what is being measured.

Autoethnography

a form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study -theorize a link b/t personal and cultural experiences and try to evoke responses in readers -newer qualitative method

Replicability

the ability of research to be repeated and, thus, later verified by other researchers -While not all methods are equally replicable, this is still an important step for much scientific work

Validity

the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what they think they are measuring

Spurious Correlation

the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable -ex. both ice cream sales and violent crime rates are influenced by a third variable: weather

Representativeness

the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

- a type of computer software that attaches social science data (like population demographics) to geographic locations -useful to study diseases, migration, population services -Chicago's notorious public housing projects

Interview Advantages

1)allow respondents to speak in their own words; they can reveal their own thoughts, feelings that would not be accessible by other means 2)Interviews may help the researcher dispel certain preconceptions and discover issues that might have otherwise been overlooked

The Nuremberg Code and Research Ethics

-The origins of contemporary research ethics can be traced back to the Nuremberg military tribunals of the late 1940s, in which a group of Nazi doctors were tried for the horrific "experiments" they had performed during World War II. These experiments involved the torture and death of thousands of concentration camp inmates -resulted in the Nuremberg Code: a set of moral and ethical guidelines for performing research on human beings -this included: to perform only research that can "yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods"; to protect their human subjects from "all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury'; and to perform research only on subjects who give their informed, noncoerced consent -tuskegee syphilis study (even with a cure of penicillin, the black men were not given it b/c they wanted to study the men, even though syphillis was painful/led to death)

Ethnography (or Ethnographic Research)

-a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study -one of the most commonly used research methods in the social sciences -qualitative method that allows for the study of a wide variety of people/places

Social Network Analysis

-a tool for measuring and visualizing the structure of social relationships between two or more people. -with questionnaires, researchers ask respondents who in their community do they look to for info/advice. Data is used to study disease transmission, information diffusion, adolescent risk behaviors, etc. -some ties can lack reciprocity-meaning the arrows, or connections, flow only in one direction -early work began with Georg Simmel who studied social ties among members of a community and how the size of a group affects the relationship among its members, or actors -Stanley Milgram's work on the "small world" phenomenon brought publicity to the field as his study showed that everyone is connected by an average of five and half to six steps to everyone else in the world (termed the "six degrees of separation) -today social network analysists can study social media to discover patterns of communication in terrorists groups; also used to understand the flow of info

Likert Scale

-a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum -ex. (strongly agree or strongly disagree)

Deductive Approach vs Inductive Approach

-an approach whereby the researcher formulates a hypothesis first and then gathers data to test that hypothesis -an approach whereby the researcher gathers data first, then formulates a theory to fit the data -scientific method usually sues a deductive approach but ethnographers use an inductive one beginning with specific observations then forming broad generalizations

Thomas Kuhn

-argued that truth is relative and dependent on the paradigm through which one sees the world -paradigms are broad theoretical models about how things work in social and natural worlds -ex. we believed the universe revolved around the earth b/c we couldn't feel movement (the available data); this earth-centered theory was the basis for all scientific theory until Nicolaus Copernicus used math to prove otherwise (heliocentrism) -this is called a paradigm shift; a major break from the assumptions made by the previous model

There is a continued debate within sociology of whether sociologists should engage only in ___________ or ____________

-basic research (the search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind) -applied research (the search for knowledge that can be used to create social change)

In order to encourage the protection of research subjects, each academic discipline has adopted its own _______________

-code of ethics: ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project -universities where research is conducted have a body known as an institutional review board (IRB): a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects -if IRB has reservations about participant's safety they can require changes to protocol or even stop project

What other kinds of harm can come to participants? They're not likely to get diseases or physical risks but harm can result, mostly as a result of breaching ___________

-confidentiality (the assurance that non one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent) -This protection is essential to gathering valid data, especially when dealing with controversial topics or vulnerable populations. Respondents must be guaranteed that no one will be able to identify them from reading the research findings -but even when researcher take measures to disguise identities, it is still sometimes difficult to keep them concealed

What is another widely used approach to working with existing sources?

-content analysis (a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables or themes that appear in a text, image, or media message) -they look for recurring themes in text, image, message, etc then analyze the themes and relationships among them -ex. content analysis has shown that women player lower status roles on tv

One limitation of the scientific method is that it can't distinguish b/t ____________ and ___________

-correlation and causation -Correlation: a relationship b/t variables in which they change together and may or may not be causal -Causation: a relationship b/t variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other -If two variables change in conjuction with each other, or if a change in one seems to lead to a change in the other, they are correlated. Even if they are correlated, though, the change in one variable may not be caused by the change in the other variable. Instead, there may be some intervening variable that causes the changes in both

Research Ethics

-doing research involving humans means that we must address moral issues -the risks of participating in social research is more subtle than participating in a drug trial -one ex is when researchers don't fully explain the project to the subjects -sometimes this is necessary in the case of a survey or fieldwork that requires deception (the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals) -Secrecy and deceit are thus never strictly prohibited; instead, researchers are cautioned to acquire the informed consent of their subjects and to conduct themselves in a way that protects the subjects from harm.

Nonacademic Use of Research Methods

-ex of this is u.s. census burea taking population surveys to know where to build schools, hospitals, etc -sociological research methods are used by private organizations like political campaigns, news offices, election polls; not all are conducted under strict scientific protocols like polls might have an agenda -businesses use soc research to better understand the human dynamics within their companies -market research is most common use of nonacademic soc methods; companies will study the marketplace and try to understand the buying public

Nearly all sociologists use ______________ when they approach a particular research question.

-existing sources (materials that have been produced for some other reason but that can be used as data for social research) -almost unlimited amount of data already exists for sociologists to use for their studies -researchers can discover existing sources -can include marriage license, building permits, books, magazines, tv shows

Unlike participant observation, interviews, surveys, or existing sources, __________ actually closely resemble the scientific method.

-experiments (formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled) -When sociologists conduct experiments, they start with two basic goals: 1) strive to develop precise tools to observe/measure data 2) attempt to control for all possible variables except the one under investigation (they want to regulate everything except the variable being tested so they know what caused that variable to change) -data analysis for experimental sociology tends to be quantitative rather than qualitative, because the main goal of an experiment is to isolate a variable and explore the degree to which that variable affects a particular social situation

A key feature of ethnography is...

-field work; research takes place in naturally occurring social environments out in the real world, where the researcher can study firsthand the day-to-day lives of the people there.

While most interviews are conducted one-on-one, some researchers will organize a ___________

-focus group: a process for interviewing a number of participants together that also allows for interaction among group members (or in which a number of participants will be interviewed at the same time allowing group members to interact) -this may be one means of increasing the sample size of a study

What is the first step in participant observation research?

-gain access to the chosen field site -once given access the researcher must establish good rapport with their subjects -rapport: a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy

Objectivity

-impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves -objectivity plays a fundamental role in scientific practice -sociologists from Comte's time believed society could be studied objectively -Some "facts" that sociologists once took to be objective reality have since been invalidated. Racist, sexist, and ethnocentric perspectives long dominated the field and passed for "truth." -like usually only the perspective of white men were considered -Another obstacle to achieving objectivity is our subjective nature as human beings. -we still long for the absolute truth but some sociologists say that subjectivity is preferable especially

Netnography, or Cyberethnography

-involves the use of participant observation methods to study online communities -they study written communication as it occurs online-gaming, social media, etc -they collect observational data as they participate in the activities -this research can draw conclusions about culture of online life and can expand our knowledge of human interaction in all sorts of settings

What are some bad questions for surveys?

-leading questions -negative questions (survey questions that ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do think) -double-barreled questions -bias can also present questions/answers in a slanted fashion

Social scientists who use surveys must follow specific procedures in order to produce valid results...

-need good questionnaire and wise sample selection -Most surveys are composed of closed-ended questions, or those for which all possible answers are provided. Answers may be as simple as a "yes" or "no" or more complex. -surveys can also include open-ended questions which are often formatted as write-in questions which provides more qualitative data -both questions/answers on survey must be written to avoid confusion/ambiguity

Action Research

-new soc trend -combines social science research with community problem solving and social change, in a way that calls into question some of sociology's closely held beliefs about ethics, bias, and the role of the researcher -action researchers do research with people, not on people, and see their work as part of a "scholarship of engagement"

Most ethnographers are _______ about their research roles

-overt -they are open about their sociological intentions -Overt research is generally preferred, because it eliminates the potential ethical problems of deception -sometimes researchers take a "covert" role and observer without letting them know

Ethnographic research is conducted through...

-participant observation (a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting) -ethnography and participant observation are used interchangeably -the researcher becomes a participant in the group -involves deep immersion into a field site so the researcher can develop a member's eye view -Ethnography, ( "writing [from the Greek graphos] culture [ethnos]) is also the term used for the product of participant observation research; it is a written report of the results of the study, often presented in book form

In quantitative research, social scientists use what type of sampling?

-probability sampling (any sampling procedure that uses randomization) -by randomly choosing participants, researchers ensure that the sample is unbiased and therefore representative of the target population -the most basic type of probability sample is simple random sample (probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected)

In addition to maintaining their objectivity, social scientists must be concerned with ___________

-reactivity (the tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied) -a researcher (Mayo) found that after changing variables it was not an actual result but the effect of being studied which is referred to as the Hawthorne effect -Hawthorne effect: a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself -subjects may be able to sense what the researchers are trying to understand or prove and in effect "give them what they want" -researcher presence always has some affect on the study whether it is noticeable or not

Surveys

-research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population -Karl Marx was one of the first to use surveys -Survey research tends to be macro and quantitative in nature: It looks at large-scale social patterns and employs statistics and other mathematical means of analysis.

Interviews, Surveys, Existing Sources

-researchers could ask them questions -could send a questionnaire -if plenty has been written about the subject of study then the researcher could use those materials to analyze subject -no matter what methodological choice the researcher makes, they will sacrifice some type of information in order to acquire others

In order for a survey to be considered valid, there must be a sufficiently high ___________

-response rate (the number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers) -difficult to get enough people to respond -if half respond that is considered good -general claims can be made about a larger population from a survey with a response rate of only 20-30 percent as long as proper sampling techniques were used -data is analyzed; responses are usually coded or turned into numerical figures -use online thods

If researchers want to study a large group then they must select a ___________

-sample: the members of the target population who will actually be studied (or a smaller group that is representative of the larger group) -The sample will be used to make generalizations that can apply to the larger target population -sample size depends on the type of study, type of questions, and staff/time available

What is another important element in survey research?

-sampling techniques -the researcher must identify the specific target population she wishes to study -by using correct sampling techniques researchers can survey a smaller number of respondents and then make accurate inferences about the larger population

Values

-sociologists believe they shouldn't allow their personal beliefs to influence their research -Max Weber coined the phrase "value-free" sociology to convey the idea that in doing research, sociologists need to separate facts from their own individual values. -this is mostly agreed upon, but some challenge this value-free sociology -like Marxist researchers who believe in combining social research and social action (praxis)

Why is the format of a questionnaire important?

-something as simple as the order of items presented can influence responses -mentioning divorce in an earlier question will make respondents think of it during a later question and their answer may be different than it otherwise would have been

What other kind of notes to ethnographic researchers take?

-take brief, sketchy notes in the field, writing key words or short quotes -these jottings can help jog their memory and elaborate later -sometimes the take "head notes" or memory alone when they can't write in the field

When using interviews to collect data about a particular question or project, sociologists must first identify a ________________

-target population: the entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize (or a group that is the focus of their study)

Independent Variable vs Dependent Variable

-the factor that is predicted to cause change in the experimental group -the factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable

Experimental Group vs Control Group

-the members of a test group who receive the experimental treatment -the members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group

Any introduction to sociological methods is incomplete without a discussion of three topics:

-the nonacademic use of sociological research -values, objectivity, and reactivity in the research process -the importance of ethics in conducting social research

Thick Description

-the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members -coined by Clifford Geertz to convey the qualities of well-written field notes -Thick description involves exploring all the possible meanings of a phenomenon (for example, a blinking eye) within a particular cultural setting -allow reader to understand the world from another's perspective

Participant Observation

-they would actually be in the thick of things, observing and participating at the same time

Existing sources are considered _______________

-unobtrusive measures (research methods that rely on existing sources and where the researcher does not intrude upon or disturb the social setting or its subjects)

Existing Sources Advantages

1)Researchers are able to work with information they could not possibly obtain on their own; analysis of existing data can be a convenient way for sociologists to pool their resources; one research can take data collected by another and use it for their own project 2)using sources such as newspapers, political speeches, etc sociologists are able to learn about many social worlds in different time periods that they couldn't enter themselves 3)researchers can use the same data to replicate projects that have been conducted before which is a good way to test findings for reliability or see change across time

Social Network Analysis Disadvantages

1)b/c it is fundamentally quantitative, it can gloss over important details and diversity in the experiences of social actors 2)big data is expensive to get/analyze and large social network data sets often come from sources that have been assembled for other purposes; big data is often criticized as nontheoretical "data dumps"

Social Network Analysis Advantages

1)can trace the route of almost anything-an idea, disease, rumor, trend- as it moves through a social group, community, or society; useful to epidemiologists 2) contributes to the production of "big data"- data sets so large that typical computer can't handle; big data enable corporations to identify major trends, target audiences, make predictions

Experiments: Disadvantages

1)experiments are applicable only to certain types of research that can be constructed and measured in a controlled setting; the same results in a lab might not occur in the real world 2)achieving distance from the messy realities of the social world is also the major weakness with sociological experiments; experiments can't draw more complex process other than isolating the variable and basing a theory off that

Experiment Advantages

1)experiments give sociologists a way to manipulate and control the social environment they seek to understand; experiments can be designed so there is minimal outside interference 2)experimental methods are the best methods for establishing causality- whether a change in the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable; being able to assess causality makes experiments effective at detecting bias and discrimination 3)highly controlled sociological experiments can theoretically be repeated-they have replicability- so that findings can be tested more than once

Steps of the Scientific Method

1)identifies a problem/asks a general question 2)does a literature review(thorough search of previous studies relevant to topic) to become familiar with previous research on the topic as to not duplicate/ and provide background 3)Forms a hypothesis; gives operational definitions to variables 4)Choose a research design or method to conduct study (ex. isolating variables to examine their relationship 5)Collect data 6)Analyze data, evaluating the accuracy or inaccuracy of the hypothesis in predicting the outcome 7)researcher disseminates findings experiment in scientific community(often through presentations at professional meetings, through publications, or in the classroom)as well as among the general public

Interviews Disadvantages

1)interview respondents are not always forthcoming or truthful. They may be selective about what they say in order to present themselves in the most favorable light. Interviewer can never take what respondent says at face value 2) another problem is representativeness: whether the conclusions of interview research can be applied to larger groups. Since interviewing is time consuming, interviews are rarely used with large numbers of people

Survey Disadvantages

1)lacks qualitative data that might capture the social reality; b/c respondents don't qualify answers it may not reflect their true thoughts 2) respondents are not always honest so surveys are weak on validity 3) problems with the sampling process, especially when respondents self-select to participate, that make generalizability more difficult 4) survey research may be used to make a claim/support a view rather than for pure scientific discovery

Survey Advantages

1)one of the best methods for gathering original data on a population that is too large to study by other means; surveys can be widely distributed and researchers can generalize findings to an even larger population 2)it is quick/cheap and can provide lots of data; online surveys promise access to even more people 3) survey research is strong on reliability (the consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers) 4) less concern for interviewer/observer bias; respondents may give more candid answers b/c they answer the questions in private/usually assured anonymity of responses

Existing Sources Disadvantages

1)researchers drawing on existing sources often seek to answer questions that the original authors did not have in mind 2)content analysis, although it can describe the message inherent in the media, does not illuminate how such messages are interpreted

Ethnography Disadvantages

1)suffers from a lack of replicability, the ability of another researcher to repeat or replicate the study. Repeating a study to test the validity of its results is an important element of the scientific method, but b/c of the unique people/setting/researcher role it is hard to repeat study 2)major critique has to do with an ethnographic study's degree of representativeness- whether a particular study can apply to another larger. what is the value of studying small groups if they don't represent parts of the society at large 3) participant observers must also be wary of personal bias. always the possibility that prejudice or favor can influence research process

Ethnographic Advantages

1)tells detailed stories that contributes to our understanding of social life; studies stories of groups otherwise not told 2)challenges our taken-for-granted notions about groups we thought we knew 3)detailed nature of ethnography can help reshape the stereotypes we hold about others and on which social policy is often based 4)much of the innovations of the last half-cen came from ethnography, especially on the issue of reflexivity and researcher roles in the field

Scientific Method

a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment -the standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical (concrete, scientific) knowledge -provides researchers a series of basic steps (not every researchers follows exactly, but its a general plan)

Informed Consent

a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research -Researchers must get informed consent from those who will be participating in the study

Pilot Study

a small-scale study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one -works out any issues with the survey design before administering it to a larger group

Hypothesis + Variables

a theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena (known as variables) -variables are two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related; these will be examined in the experiment -the hypothesis says one variable has a causal connection to the other -researcher can use the hypothesis to predict possible outcomes

Intervening Variable

a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables

Life History

an approach to interviewing that asks for a chronological account of the respondent's entire life, or some portion of it

Grounded Theory

an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories -they start by immersing themselves in their field notes and fitting the data into categories such as "episodes of conflict" or "common vocab shared by members." Identifying relationships among these categories then allows ethnographers to build theoretical propositions

Bias

an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis

Close-ended question vs Open-ended question

close: a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses open: a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses -composing a good question is the most difficult part of interviewing

Field Notes

detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the analysis -use as much detail as possible

Reflexivity

how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting -Participant observers own presence probably affects the interactions and relationships in the group they are observing -researcher's personal feeling about the members of a group (whether that is respect, contempt, etc) during their time in the field influences their observations

Interviews

person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information (qualitative data) by means of questions posed to respondents -respondent: a participant in a study from who the researcher seeks to gather info -interviews and surveys are similar as they both ask people questions but interviews are always conducted by the researcher where surveys may be taken independently by the respondent

Double-Barreled Questions

questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers -overly complex questions are a problem -also avoid any inflammatory or ambiguous language that might confuse or spark an emotional reaction from respondent

Leading Questions

questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way -researchers must be careful to avoid biased or leading questions

Quantitative Research

research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships -Any type of social statistic is an example of quantitative data (often in the form of rates/percentages/charts/graphs)

Comparative Historical Research

research that uses existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods -researchers go back in time and analyze cultural artifacts such as literature, paintings, newspapers -ex. Peter Stearns consulted various existing sources for his book Anxious Parents: A History of Modern Childrearing in America to investigate the changing meanings of childhood (helicopter parent)

Qualitative Research

research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world -don't condense lived experience into numbers but go into detail -participant observation (entering the social world they study), interviews, analyze conversations, data from historical books/letters -Qualitative researchers like Gary Fine find patterns in their data by using interpretive rather than statistical analysis.