Sociology Chapter 8

White Nationalism and Groups

-KKK, Aryan Brotherhood, and Neo-Nazis espouse overtly racist and anti-Semitic ideas about white supremacy and radical separation -believe whites are innately superior to other races and should hold power over all social institutions -want all-white nations -while KKK is extreme example, some ideas embraced by white supremacist groups are part of more populist alt-right groups -they share a common commitment to white nationalism

More about Racism

-ideology used to justify unequal social arrangements b/t dominant and nondominant groups -these beliefs often rooted in assumption that differences among groups are innate, or biologically based -can also arise from negative view of a group's cultural characteristics -racism presumes one group is better than another -some believe that racism is erased while others still experience it daily -while we made strides, racism is not yet a thing of the past -still persists in our social institutions

In the nineteenth century, biologists came up with a schema that grouped humans into three races:

Negroid, Mongoloid, and Caucasoid (corresponding roughly to black, Asian, and white) -it was believed that race was characterized by its own biological makeup, separate and distinct from the others -however, modern scientists have tools to examine race in a more sophisticated way

Racism

a set of beliefs about the claimed superiority of one racial or ethnic group; used to justify inequality and often rooted in the assumption that differences among groups are genetic

Minority Group

a social group that is systematically denied the same access to power and resources available to society's dominant groups though its members are not necessarily fewer in number than the dominant groups -they belong to a social category (either racial or ethnic) and suffer unequal treatment as result of that status

Ethnicity

a socially defined category based on common language, religion, nationality, history, or another cultural factor

Another way we can show group membership is through Situational Ethnicity

an ethnic identity that can be either displayed or concealed depending on its usefulness in a given situation -it has a cost-benefit analysis that symbolic ethnicity doesn't -we need to appraise each situation to determine whether or not it favors our ethnicity

Symbolic Ethnicity

an ethnic identity that is relevant only on specific occasions and does not significantly affect everyday life -ex. most Irish Americans are fully assimilated for multiple gens that their Irish ancestry doesn't matter to them daily, but on St. Patrick's Day displays of Irish identity can be pretty overwhelming (green clothing, corned beef and cabbage are all elements of symbolic ethnicity) -ex. Passover, Cinco de mayo, nouruz

Institutional Discrimination

discrimination carried out systematically by institutions (political, economic, educational, and others) that affect all members of a group who come into contact with it

Racism is not always as obvious as a swastika or the "N-word." Sometimes it's much more subtle. Microaggressions...

everyday uses of subtle verbal and nonverbal communications that convey denigrating or dismissive messages to members of certain social groups -racial microaggressions are the small-scale racial slight, insults, and misperceptions in everyday life -typically b/t white and racial minority -while microaggressions are subtle, they deliver powerful message that marginalizes others (ex. what are you? Where are you really from)

White Nationalism

the belief that the nation should be built around a white identity that is reflected in religion, politics, economics, and culture

In order for social inequality to persist...

the unequal treatment that minority groups suffer must be supported by the dominant groups

Privilege

unearned advantage accorded to members of dominant social groups (males, whites, heterosexuals, the physically able, etc.)

Implicit Bias

attitudes or stereotypes that are embedded at an unconscious level and may influence our perceptions, decisions, and actions -unrecognized or unconscious prejudices and stereotypes that shape our interactions with others -ex. implicit bias affects how pediatricians treat pain management in kids: whites get more pain management than blacks -ex. students of color are more disciplined in school than whites

Reverse Racism

the claim by whites that they suffer discrimination based upon their race and, therefore, experience social disadvantages

___________ is another, often subtle form of racism.

-Cultural appropriation -the adoption of cultural elements belonging to an oppressed group by members of the dominant group, without permission and often for the dominant group's gain -cultural elements can include art, music, dance, dress, religious rituals, etc. -it can be insensitive or even hurt members by being offensive or perpetuate negative stereotypes

Situational Ethnicity Example

-Dr. Ferris's Lebanese ancestry never mattered outside her family when in CA - it was something she downplayed b/c of the suspicion of Arabs -but when she moved to Illinois, there was a large pop of Lebanese descent which made Dr. Ferris's ethnicity a valuable asset -so, in situational ethnicity, large social forces can govern the identities we choose-if we have a choice -neither situational nor symbolic ethnicity is available to those who are visibly nonmainstream, whatever that means in a given society -in the u.s. this means nonwhites don't have a choice about whether or not to display their group membership

Ironically, modern scientists have found that there is no...

-"pure" race- -the lines among races are blurry rather than fixed -a person who looks white will inevitably have biological material from other races, as will someone who looks black -also, there is no "superior" race, as race itself is not the reason that different groups might display positive or negative characteristics (intelligence or athleticism)

In recent years, conflict theorists have developed new approaches to understanding race.

-Almaguer looks at racism in CA in 19th cen -describes racial hierarchy (whites, mexicans, blacks, asians, natives) -examined how white supermacist ideology became institutionalized -racist beliefs

The U.S. Census Bureau conducts survey every ten years. In the 2000 Census

-Americans were given the opportunity for the first time to identify with more than one race; creating 57 possible race combinations -but there have always been multiracial people in u.s. such as Europeans mixing with native and black slaves -immigrants coming to u.s. have added to its multiracial pop -understandable that American lineage merge -so, will race and ethnicity be important in future as in the past?

Institutional Discrimination Example

-Ferguson, Missouri -Protests broke out in 2014 after police shot unarmed teen -unrest continued when grand jury failed to charge officer with murder -led to investigation by dep. of justice which found that Ferguson police have been routinely violating constitutional rights of black residents -while blacks made up 67% of pop, they accounted for 85% of vehicle stops, 88% of cases used arrest and 93% led to arrest

For much of American history, white dominance has been a reality. But with changing demographics and advances in civil rights, some white feel that the country no longer represents their interests.

-Hochschild did a study called Tea Party supporters in rural Lousiana -In book Their Own Land, she explains how blue-collar whites see themselves as "waiting in line" for the benefits of American life, and view immigrants and other nonwhite groups as "line-cutters"—people who don't deserve those benefits/ snatching them from those who do deserve them -those who feel anxiety about the direction of social change may be attracted to white nationalist ideas -but many whites also welcome diversity

Ethnicity Example

-Scotch-Irish are distinct ethnic groups in American society, linked by common cultural heritage including language, religion, etc. -In 18th century they migrated to u.s. -Vance characterized Scotch-Irish as tight-knit and fiercely loyal group that clings to traditional family values, Christianity, and conservative politics -Jews are another example; contrary to Nazis' beliefs Jews are an ethnic group but not a race -they share religious/cultural background -stereotypes are challenged when we see blond/blue eyed Jew from Scandinavia or black Ethiopian Jew

White nationalism has gained traction in recent years, becoming much more visible during

-Trump's campaign -his anti-immigrant ideas (like lowering # of Latin immigrants) go along with white nationalist sentiment and he brought those ideas into the mainstream -like Charlottesville, Virginia (2017) -But Feagin urges us to remember that white supremacy and white nationalism are nothing new -this history is key to understanding why racism today remains systemic. -while it may be tempting to write off white nationalism as deviant from American values, research shows these racist views are held by many whites across America

What is prejudice?

-a "prejudgment" is an inflexible attitude (usually negative, although it can work in reverse) about a particular group of people that is rooted in generalizations or stereotypes -ex. all asians are good at math, all mexicans are lazy

With each new generation, the United States is becoming...

-a more diverse nation -in 2018: whites (60%), latinos (18%), blacks (13%), asians (6%), native (1%) -but its more complicated -many americans identify themselves as belonging to two or more races

Discrimination

-an action or behavior that results in the unequal treatment of individuals because of their membership in a certain racial or ethnic group -ex of discrimination: turned down for job/home loan b/c they're black still not discriminate against others

Microaggressions can also be seen in...

-body language -Ex. white woman clutching purse around Latino men or white person asking to touch black person's hair -microaggressions can also include treating poc as second class citizens like mistaking them for retail store worker

Members of the dominant groups, which is still whites in America, may thus enjoy...

-certain benefits and advantages denied to minority group members without knowing that discrimination is the reason -Whites may believe in equality but still not challenge the injustices perpetuated by our systems of stratification -may be attributable to a phenomenon called implicit bias

Minority

-commonly thought of as a group that's small in number than the majority group -thus, we could say in u.s. whites are majority while other races are minorities b/c white outnumber -but numbers don't tell the story -how do sociologists define minority

How do we display our racial and ethnic group membership?

-in many ways: through dress, language, food, religion, music, schools, etc -sometimes these practices make our group membership obvious to others; sometimes not -white ethnics like Irish can actually choose when and how they display their ethnic group membership -one way group membership is displayed is through symbolic ethnicity

Affirmative Action

-contentious area, and claims of reverse racism have been made -affirmative action policies were established to create opportunities for underrepresented minorities in housing, education, employment -goal to promote diversity/inclusion, provide equal access, reduce effects of historical discrimination -people criticize affirmative action in college admissions -several high profile cases of white students suing universities on the grounds of reverse racism have reached supreme court and struck down -states have passed laws banning affirmative action -CA (largest system of higher education in nation) sought other means to ensure equal representation

Individual Discrimination

-discrimination carried out by one person against another -ex. racist teacher discriminates against Latino student by giving lower grade

Prejudice often, but not always, leads to __________

-discrimination: unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a social group; usually motivated by prejudice

Prejudiced ideas don't always flow from the...

-dominant group toward minorities -it's possible for members of a nondominant or minority group to hold negative stereotypes about the dominant group -minority members can be prejudiced against themselves or their own group--internalized racism -prejudice ideas circulate through culture, making them hard to avoid even for those who would wish not to have them -as we are socialized into norms/values, we may unknowingly pick up some prejudice as well

As an example of the social construction of race and ethnicity, let's look at the evidence documenting the historical changes in the boundaries of the category "white."

-early 1900s, native-born Americans (protestants) didn't consider recent Irish, Italian, Jewish immigrants to be white and restricted these groups from places of living/work -housing discrimination force new immigrants into urban ghettos -after WWII, as the second gen immigrants became adults, importance of ethnic identity declined and skin color became main way to see who's white or not -today, the question is whether middle easterners are white; after 9/11 war on terrorism, Arabs/Muslims have been identified as racially/ethnically distinct in harmful ways (while they have range of skin/facial features; their symbolic labeling in this climate makes them "nonwhite")

Conflict Theory

-focuses on struggle for power/control -Marxist look for the source of racism in capitalist hierarchies -Bonacich argues that racism is partly driven by economic competition and struggle over resources -A "split labor market," in which one group of workers (usually defined by race, ethnicity, or gender) is routinely paid less than those in other groups, keeps wages low for racial and ethnic minorities, compounding the effects of racism with poverty

It is possible to be in the numerical majority and still...

-have minority status with regard to power/opportunity -ex. south africa has majority blacks but white minority controls the country -ex. in California in 2018, whites (40%) whereas ethnic groups made majority (60%). So, CA is majority minority state. However, this doesn't make whites a minority b/c they are dominant in power, resources, representation in social institutions -ex. latinos are underrepresented in cali system/state gov/business owners, etc. but overrepresented in prisons, crime, poverty

Racial discrimination can take different forms...

-individual discrimination -institutional discrimination

The concept of privilege is gaining greater currency while still garnering much debate. There are various...

-mechanisms of privilege -In a stratified society, one may have privilege based on class, race, gender, sexuality, or other factors. The idea of the privileges of race dates back to W. E. B. DuBois -recently, McIntosh reintroduced the idea of a well-known article about "unpacking the invisible knapsack" of white privilege -this idea has become more into national conversation

There is still deep skepticism about whether

-negative racial attitudes are changing in America -many were hopeful that election of Obama was sign of racial healing -but during his term, racial strife continued -high-profile incidents of police brutality/killing of unarmed black men occurred -in 2016, poll showed that 69% of Americans thought that race relations were bad- same level of racial discontent reported in 1992 after rodney king riots -racial concerns deepened after Trump election -in 2019, polls revealed that 40% of Americans said they are worried about race relations in u.s.; up from just 17% in 2014

Do we live in a "post-racial" world?

-not yet -race does matter, and racism does still exist -it is not as obvious as before with separate water fountains, nor is it only a black and white issue -it takes more subtle forms now -ex. many liquor stores in black neighborhoods, or many Latino immigrants in low-wage jobs -when we claim to not see race we are actually engaging in a new, more "civilized" form of racism that sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva calls "color-blind racism"

Race and Ethnicity

-often used interchangeably, but they are different -for hundreds of years there was the idea that race belonged to distinguishable categories

"White privilege" is the idea that

-one group (whites) in a society enjoys certain unearned advantages not available to others (nonwhites) and that group members (whites) are largely unaware of the unequal benefits they possess -privilege can include wide range of advantages in our social institutions and small everyday interactions -ex. whites can assume most interactions with authority figures will be other whites which reduces fear of mistreatment -Ex. on a macro-level, whites can assume they will find makeup, underclothes, etc. that match their skin color whereas darker skin can't find "nude"; nonwhite ballerinas had to buy "white" pointe shoes and dye them to match legs

Wilson (Marxist) argued that

-openly racist gov policies/individual racist attitudes were the driving forces behind the creation of a black underclass but that the underclass is now perpetuated by economic factors, not racial ones -while link b/t race and class is important, it doesn't provide explanation for all forms of racial stratification

Institutional Racism Example

-other major social institutions also discriminate -Rothstein studied housing policy in u.s. -found that Federal Housing authority systematically excluded blacks while benefit whites -in the color of law, Rothstein shows how federal agency refused to insure mortgages for black borrowers-restricting ability of blacks to own homes at all -though it is now illegal, the policy known as "redlining" (referring to the way black neighborhoods are designated on federal maps) continues today

Perhaps what functionalism can best offer is an explanation of how

-prejudice and discrimination develop, by focusing on social solidarity and group cohesion -Groups have a tendency toward ethnocentrism, or the belief that one's own culture and way of life are right and normal -functionalists argue that positive feelings about one's group are strong ties to bond people -But, this cohesiveness can lead members to see others, especially those of other races, in unfavorable light

Racism can express itself through both...

-prejudice and discrimination, and though the terms are often used interchangeably, there are important distinctions b/t them

Is privilege visible?

-privilege is often invisible. so, it can bling them to the challenges faced by members of nonprivileged groups -whites may claim, for example, that race no longer matters and we live in a "color-blind" society -the notion of color-blindness sounds good (not judging people by race) but it is also problematic b/c it implies that race should be both invisible and inconsequential which isn't true

Structural Functionalism (Race)

-provide lens to analyze how certain ethnic groups (mainly European immigrants) arriving in 1900s, eventually became assimilated into larger society -Functionalism, however, doesn't explain the persistence of racial divisions and why other races and ethnicities, such as African Americans and Hispanics, have continued to maintain their distinct identities alongside the white majority culture today. -this is b/c functionalism sees any social phenomenon through the lens of its contributions to social stability: if it exists/persists, it must be necessary/functional for social order (including racial inequality)

As the United States becomes an increasingly nonwhite nation, however, we are likely to see more

-pushback from the more extreme factions of the far right -Southern Poverty Law Center charted trend that worsened in 2018 (fueled in part by Trump and his anti-immigrant, and ban on Muslims) -number of hate groups in u.s. rose to 1,020 up from 892 in 2015 -most dramatic growth was the near tripling of anti-Muslim hate groups from 35 in 2015 to 100 in 2018

Cultural Appropriation Examples

-recent fashion trends use (native) suede and fringe -sports teams like Cleveland Indians or Washington Redskins -critics says it's a problem when specific items/practices with sacred value (like a headdress) are used without awareness of their significance or in a disrespectful -cultural appropriation often benefits dominant group by taking an oppressed group's cultural symbols and turns them into a commodity for profit -this is a kind of pillaging in postmodern cultural imperialism -Hollywood also cultural appropriates -white actors played minority characters -Johansson, Stone, Damon played nonwhite characters and were criticized for white-washing

It is possible, but unlikely, that a person can be prejudiced and...

-still not discriminate against others -Merton calls this "timid bigots" -ex. teacher can believe Asian students are better at math yet not let it influence their grades -or a person could not be prejudice but still unknowingly participate in discrimination by carrying out institutional policies that have discriminatory outcomes; ex. promoting workers based on seniority which privileges dominant group members since minorities will usually be newer employees due to the history of discrimination in hiring

The belief in reverse racism is persistent despite the data that refutes it.

-study found that 49% of all Americans agree that discrimination against whites has become as big a problem as discrimination against other minorities while another 49% disagree -only 29% of blacks and 38% hispanics agreed while 57% of whites agreed -some of this difference in opinion may come from the misperception about what racism is

While whites may confront some forms of...

-temporary, occasional, or situational discrimination, they don't suffer from the widespread disadvantages in almost every sphere of social life that are perpetuated within a historically racist society -even if all poc hated whites, they would not be in the position to affect white people's ability to get an education, or job, or find a home, etc. -racism against whites is not supported by social structures -according to DiAngelo racism requires the ongoing use of institutional power/authority to perpetuate prejudiced/discrimantory actions in systemic ways -so, poc may hold discrimanotory views but they don't have the power to transform society into one that is biased against whites -but whites do have the position to influence laws, customs, norms, etc.

Physical Differences

-the physical differences we see between groups, such as skin color or hair texture, are due to geographic adaptations -People living close to equator have more melanin (and darker skin) to protect from sun -people close to poles have less melanin (and lighter skin), which allows them to absorb enough sunlight to produce vitamin D -we attributed great significance to quite superficial differences -but all humans, of any racial category are 99.9% genetically identical -only 15% of the 0.1 variation occurs b/t geographically distinct groups -so, race is not a genetic trait -no race chromosomes in DNA

Historically, whites have constituted a considerable majority of the American population, but...

-this proportion is shrinking -in 1985, whites (85% pop) but 60% now -black pop remained constant but asians/latinos grown -demographers predict that this trend will continue and by 2045, whites will make up just 49.7% of pop -meaning, no single racial/ethnic group will represent majority of u.s. pop, making American a majority-minority country -membership in minority group may serve as a "master status" overriding other statuses -members may be subject to racist beliefs and have social disadvantages -lack of power generates strong sense of common identity/solidarity among minority members

There is greater genetic diversity...

-within racial populations than between them -within Asian pop, members differ more from each other (koreans from chinese) than they do from whites -the difference b/t type O blood person and type A is more significant than b/t dark and light-skinned people -yet blood types are not used to distinguish groups other than medical treatment

Race

a socially defined category based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people -race is more meaningful socially than biologically

Prejudice

an idea about the characteristics of a group that is applied to all members of that group and is unlikely to change regardless of the evidence against it

Race Consciousness

an ideology that acknowledges race as a powerful social construct that shapes our individual and social experiences -awareness of the importance of race in our everyday lives/social institutions -this approach recognizes that despite civil rights improvements, race is still a powerful factor

Color-blind Racism

an ideology that removes race as an explanation for any form of unequal treatment -idea that we live in a society where racial prejudice/discrimination no longer exist, even though they do -color-blind racism is hard to fight -but there is an alternative: race consciousness

Antiracist Allies

whites and others working toward the goal of ending racial injustice -one of the most effective ways that whites can challenge racism is by working with other whites to help them gain a greater awareness of how racism works/what they can do -it means confronting racism in their own everyday lives -white are in a unique position to recruit other whites to think critically about white privilege -start with listening to rather than speaking for poc