Sociology Exam 3 Study Guide

Define social differentiation, social stratification, and social class.

- Social differentiation is the process by which different statuses in any group, organization, or society develop. - Social stratification is a relatively fixed hierarchical arrangement in society by which groups have different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth; a system of structured social inequality. - Social class is the social structural hierarchical position groups hold relative to the economic, social, political, and cultural resources of society.

Define social mobility.

- Social mobility is a person's movement over time from one class to another. V. Class Stratification and Social Mobility 1. The assumption is that the United States class system is a meritocracy, which is a system in which one's status is based on merit or accomplishments, not other social characteristics. A. Social mobility is a person's movement over time from one class to another. 1. It can be intergenerational or intragenerational 2. Class systems can be closed or open.

What is the difference between a closed and open class system?

- Some societies are based on closed class systems, in which movement from one class to another is virtually impossible. In a caste system, for example, mobility is strictly limited by the circumstances of one's birth. - At the other extreme are open class systems, in which placement in the class system is based on individual achievement, not ascription. In open class systems, there are relatively loose class boundaries, high rates of class mobility, and weak perceptions of class difference.

Compare and contrast lower class, working poor, and urban underclass.

- The lower class is composed primarily of displaced and poor. - The poor include the working poor—those who work at least twenty-seven hours a week but whose wages fall below the federal poverty level. - The urban underclass is a grouping of people, largely minority and poor, who live at the absolute bottom of the socioeconomic ladder in urban areas.

What is the difference between class consciousness and false consciousness?

- Class consciousness is the awareness that a class structure exists and the feeling of shared identification with others in one's class with whom one perceives common life chances. - False consciousness is the thought resulting from subordinate classes internalizing the view of the dominant class.

What is the difference between intergenerational and intragenerational mobility?

- Mobility can be either intergenerational, occurring between generations, as when a daughter rises above the class of her mother or father, or intragenerational, occurring within a generation, as when a person's class status changes as the result of business success (or disaster).

Explain liberal feminism, socialist feminism, radical feminism, and multiracial feminism.

1. Liberal feminism is a feminist theoretical perspective asserting that the origin of women's inequality is in traditions of the past that pose barriers to women's advancement. 2. Socialist feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression. 3. Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts. Radical feminists seek to abolish patriarchy by challenging existing social norms and institutions, rather than through a purely political process. 4. Multiracial feminism is a form of feminist theory noting the exclusion of women of color from other forms of theory and centering its analysis in the experiences of all women.

Compare and contrast the 4 types of racism.

1. Old-fashioned racism is overt and obvious expressions of racism, such as physical assaults, lynchings, and other such acts against a minority. 2. Aversive racism is subtle, nonovert, and nonobvious racism. 3. Laissez-faire racism is maintaining the status quo of racial groups by persistent stereotyping and blaming of minorities themselves for achievement and socioeconomic gaps between groups. 4. Color-blind racism is ignoring legitimate racial, ethnic, and cultural differences between groups, thus denying the reality of such differences.

Explain the scapegoat and authoritarian personality theories of prejudice.

1. Scapegoat theory is an argument that dominant group aggression is directed toward a minority as a substitute for frustration with some other problem. 2. Authoritarian personality is a personality characterized by a tendency to rigidly categorize people and to submit to authority, rigidly conform, and be intolerant of ambiguity.

Define racial formation.

2. Racial formation refers to the socio-historical process in which racial categories are created, changed, and destroyed, racial formation is supported through official social institutions, such as the government.

Define racialization.

2. Racialization is the process whereby some social category, like social class, religion, or nationality, takes on what is perceived in the society to be racial characteristics.

Compare and contrast assimilation and pluralism and give examples of each.

A. Functionalist Theory 1. Assimilation is a process by which a minority group becomes socially, economically, and culturally absorbed into the dominant culture. 2. Pluralism is the maintenance and persistence of one's own culture.

What is the functionalist perspective on race?

A. Functionalist Theory 1. Assimilation is a process by which a minority group becomes socially, economically, and culturally absorbed into the dominant culture. 2. Pluralism is the maintenance and persistence of one's own culture.

Who are the poor in the United States today and what is meant by the feminization of poverty?

A. The poor are comprised of 43.6 million people, which represents 14.3% of the U.S. The vast majority of these people are women and children.

Discuss the concept of the culture of poverty. How is it different from the cycle of poverty?

B. Causes of Poverty 1. Blaming the victim: the culture of poverty - the culture of poverty argument views poverty as caused by welfare dependency, the absence of work values, and the irresponsibility of the poor. 2. Social structural causes of poverty: the cycle of poverty - the underlying causes of poverty lie in the economic and political structure in the U.S. The poor are a necessary by-product of capitalism. They have little economic and political power to decrease their numbers.

How do conflict theorists view race?

B. Conflict Theory 1. Exploitation theory suggests racial subordination keeps minorities in low-paying jobs, thereby supplying the capitalist ruling class with a pool of cheap labor.

How do conflict theorists view the issue of stratification and inequality?

B. Conflict View 1. Stratification is a major source of societal tension and conflict, and will inevitably lead to instability and social change.

Define the 3 indicators of socioeconomic status (SES).

B. Measuring social class - Individuals are assigned to social classes on the basis of income, occupation prestige, and educational attainment. This is known as socioeconomic status or SES. These indicators are correlated and can be measured.

What is meant by the social construction of race?

C. Social construction of race 1. The social construction of race is the process by which people come to define a group as a race based on physical characteristics, as well as historical, cultural, and economic factors.

Explain contact theory. Which theoretical framework suggests it?

C. Symbolic Interaction Theory 1. Racial and ethnic identity is fundamental to an individual's self-concept. 2. Race and ethnicity establishes group identity and attachments to larger groups. 3. Promotes sub-cultural identification and sense of community based on cultural ancestry.

How do conflict theorists view gender?

Conflict theorists see gender as reinforcing power inequalities between women and men that are built into the social structure. Gendered institutions like, work, and the economy, exploit women as a source of cheap labor.

Define minority group. What differentiates them from the dominate group?

D. Minority groups 1. A numerical minority is a group that makes up less than half of some larger population. 2. A minority, in the sociological sense, is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than members of the dominant or majority group have over theirs. 3. The dominant group assigns a racial or ethnic group to subordinate status in society.

What is the functionalist view of gender?

Functionalist theory emphasizes that gender differentiation contributes to social stability. Also, families require specialized roles.

What are the social costs and benefits associated gender roles and gender identities?

Gender roles and the price of conformity i. Conformity to stereotypical gender expectations of behavior, appearance, and roles has negative consequences for both genders. ii. Women are denied access to power, influence, achievement, and independence in the public world. iii. Men are denied nurturing, emotional support, and participation in others' lives.

Define gender stratification.

Gender stratification is the hierarchical distribution of social and economic resources according to gender.

What is meant by the concept of a gendered institution?

Gendered institutions are the total pattern of gender relations that structure social institutions, including the stereotypical expectations, interpersonal relationships, and the different placement of men and women that are found in institutions. Schools, for example, are not just places where children learn gender roles but are gendered institutions because they are founded on specific gender patterns.

Describe the 3 major systems of stratification.

I. 3 Forms of Stratification Systems: 1. Estate System (Feudalism) is where peasants worked land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection or other services. 2. Caste system is a hierarchy system of rank usually based on ascribed status. 3. Class system refers to a social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved status can influence social mobility, based on performance. The US practices this.

What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

I. Race & Ethnicity A. Race 1. Race is primarily a social construct based on physical appearance. It is a term used to describe a group treated as distinct in society based on observed biological traits. B. Ethnicity 1. Ethnicity is a social construct and it refers to a social category of people who share a common culture. 2. Ethnic groups develop because of their unique historical and social experiences that become the basis for the group's ethnic identity or cultural heritage.

What is the difference between income, wealth, and net worth?

II. Income, Wealth, and SES A. Income is the amount of money brought into a household from various sources during a given period, wealth is the monetary value of everything one actually owns. As of 2010, 5% of the population owned 60% of all wealth in the US. - Net worth is the value of one's financial assets minus debt.

How do sociologists distinguish between prejudice and discrimination?

II. Prejudice and Discrimination A. Prejudice is the negative evaluation of a social group, and individuals within that group. It is usually based on conceptions about the group that are held despite facts that contradict. B. Discrimination is overt behavior that that members of a particular group unequally just because they belong to that group. C. Racism includes both attitudes and behaviors. It is the perception and treatment of a racial or ethnic group, or member of that group, as intellectually, socially, and culturally inferior to one's own group.

Explain class and capitalism from a Marxist perspective.

III. Sociological Perspectives on Stratification A. Karl Marx's view of class differentiation. 1. Differential access to scarce resources shapes the relationship between groups. Controlling the primary mode of economic production is key. 2. Bourgeois (the capitalist class) owns the factories and machinery and controls most production. 3. Proletariat (the working class) whose members are exploited by the capitalist bourgeois. 4. Marx predicted the exploited proletariat would eventually revolt and destroy the capitalist system because: A. They would develop class consciousness (a subjective awareness of their plight and of the need for collective action to effect change). B. Overcome false consciousness (an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect its objective position, but rather that of the dominant class).

Explain the difference between the terms absolute poverty and relative poverty.

IV. Poverty 1. Absolute poverty refers to a minimum level of subsistence involving the inability to secure basic necessities such as food, shelter, and healthcare. 2. Relative poverty is a comparison to a set standard.

How do functionalists view the issue of stratification and inequality?

IV. Theoretical Views of Stratification A. Functionalist View 1. Society must distribute its members among a variety of social positions, which need to be filled with people with the appropriate talents and abilities. 2. Status, prestige, and money motivates people to fill critical positions.

Define ideology. Give an example of it.

Ideology is a belief system that tries to explain and justify the status quo.

What are the basic characteristics of a minority group?

In general, a racial or ethnic minority group has the following characteristics: 1. The minority group possesses characteristics (such as race, ethnicity, sexual preference, age, or religion, and even gender) that are popularly regarded as different from those of the dominant group. 2. The minority group suffers prejudice and discrimination by the dominant group. 3. Membership in the group is frequently ascribed rather than achieved, although either form of status can be the basis for being identified as a minority. 4. Members of a minority group feel a strong sense of group solidarity. There is a "consciousness of kind" or "we" feeling. This bond grows from common cultural heritage and the shared experience of being a recipient of prejudice and discrimination.

What is institutional racism?

Institutional racism is racism involving notions of racial or ethnic inferiority that have become ingrained into society's institutions.

Define Weber's terms life chances, class, status, and party.

Life chances are the opportunities that people have in common by virtue of belonging to a particular class. -class (the economic dimension); -status (or prestige, the cultural and social dimension); and, -party (or power, the political dimension).

Define poverty line.

Poverty line is the figure established by the government to indicate the amount of money needed to support the basic needs of a household.

Explain residential segregation.

Residential segregation is the spatial separation of racial and ethnic groups in different residential areas.

Define sex and gender.

Sex refers to biological identity, being male or female. For sociologists, the more significant concept is gender—the socially learned expectations, identities, and behaviors associated with members of each sex. This distinction emphasizes that behavior associated with gender is culturally learned.

Define stereotype. How is it related to the salience principle?

Stereotype is an oversimplified set of beliefs about the members of a social group or social stratum that is used to categorize individuals of that group. The categorization of people into groups and the subsequent application of stereotypes is based on the salience principle, which states that we categorize people on the basis of what appears initially prominent and obvious—that is, salient—about them. E. Stereotypes and Salience - People routinely categorize other people based on readily apparent (salient) characteristics. 1. Stereotypes are oversimplified sets of beliefs about members of a social group that presumably describe a "typical member." Further down groups receive more negative stereotype. 2. The salience principle states that we categorize (stereotype) people on the basis of what appears as obvious physical characteristics.

Name 3 things that gender identity influences.

The formation of gender identity i. Gender identity is one's definition of oneself as a woman or man. ii. It is basic to our self-concept and shapes: 1. Our role expectations of ourselves. 2. Our abilities and interests 3. How we interact with others

Name the agents of gender socialization and describe an example for each of a message they might deliver about gender roles.

The main agents of gender socialization are parents, peer, siblings, school, society and religion.

Explain the principle of stereotype interchangeability and give an example.

The principle of stereotype interchangeability holds that stereotypes, especially negative ones, are often interchangeable from one social class to another, from one racial or ethnic group to another, from a racial or ethnic group to a social class, or from a social class to a gender. Stereotype interchangeability is sometimes revealed through humor. Ethnic jokes often interchange different groups as the butt of the humor, stereotyping them as dumb and inept. Take the stereotype of African Americans as inherently lazy.

What is gender socialization?

Through gender socialization, men and women learn the expectations, rules, behaviors, attitudes, perceptions, feelings associated with their sex.

Compare and contrast human capital theory and dual labor market theory.

a. Human capital theory explains some of the difference in terms of differences in human capital variables brought to the labor force, like education, age, experience, job turnover, and interrupted work records, but it does not explain it all. b. Dual labor market theory contends that two labor markets exist and that women and racial-ethnic minorities are far more likely to be employed in the secondary market than in the primary market, and even with the primary labor market they tend to be in the second tier.

Define sexism. How is it related to patriarchy?

a. Sexism and patriarchy i. Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. ii. Sexism often emerges in societies structured by patriarchy. Patriarchy is male dominance in social life. b. Women in the U.S. workforce i. When men and women hold the same jobs, men usually make more money. This wage gap persists even after controlling for age, education, and work experience. ii. 60% of all women are in the U.S. labor force. On average women earn 77% of what men earn for similar labor. The median income for women working full time is $36,278, compared to men's $47,127.

Describe the pattern of gender segregation in the labor force.

c. Gender segregation is a situation in which men and women work in gender-segregated occupations, women tend to be concentrated in a smaller range of occupations than men, and women usually work in different jobs than men even in the same occupation. d. Overt discrimination refers to the practices that single out some groups for different and unequal treatment. Men are motivated to preserve their labor market advantages by establishing rules that distribute rewards unequally. An example is sexual harassment.

Describe feminist theory.

d. Feminist theory has developed in the context of the feminist movement and forms the bedrock upon with feminists have built their programs of social and political change, the four major frameworks include: i. Liberal feminism ii. Socialist feminism iii. Radical feminism iv. Multiracial feminism