Sociology Final

LGBTQ

"Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer"

George Murdock

"Outline of World Cultures" (1954); all societies classify work by gender

amalgamation

"melting pot"; the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group; also known as miscegenation and is achieved through intermarriage between races

third gender (Fa'afafine)

"the way of the woman"; term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine traits; important part of Samoan culture

lower class

(1) working class (2) working poor (3) underclass

Broverman & Broverman

conducted a groundbreaking study on the traits mental health workers ascribed to males and females; the study (being male, being female, and being healthy) uncovered the general assumption that being female is associated with being somewhat unhealthy or not of sound mind

Sanday

conducted a study of the Indonesian Minangkabau in 2004 that revealed that in societies that some consider to be matriarchies (where women comprise the dominant group), women and men tend to work cooperatively rather than competitively

class

consists of a set of people who share similar status with regard to factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation

Melvin Tumin

countered the Davis-Moore thesis in "Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis," arguing that it did not explain why a media personality with little education, skill, or talent becomes famous and rich on a reality show or a campaign trail; believed social stratification prevented qualified people from attempting to fill roles

transvestites

cross-dress at times

Patricia Hill Collins

developed intersection theory, which suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes

Employee Non-Discrimination Act

ensures workplace equality regardless of sexual orientation

conflict theory (racism/ethnicity)

examines the numerous past and current struggles between the white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority group

Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick

expanded on Kinsey's notions and coined the term "homosocial" to oppose "homosexual," describing non-sexual same-relations; recognized that in American culture, males are subject to a clear divide between the two sides of this continuum, whereas females enjoy more fluidity

The Bracero Program

federal program designed to allow more Hispanic American immigration, not block it

traditional model (of global stratification)

first-, second-, and third-world country labels

symbolic interactionism (sexuality)

focus on the meanings associated with sexuality and with sexual orientation and are interested in how discussions of homosexuals often focus almost exclusively on the sex lives of gays and lesbians

de jure (segregation)

formal segregation that is enforced by law (apartheid movement of South Africa)

(Kingsley) Davis & (Wilbert) Moore

functionalist sociologists that believed that rewarding more important work with higher levels of income, prestige, and power encourages people to work harder and longer

structural functionalism (gender roles)

gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home; these roles were considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time

minority group(s)

groups that are subordinate, or lacking power in society regardless of skin color or country of origin

status inconsistency

high prestige, low power

transgender

individuals who identify with the role that is the opposite of their biological sex (2-5% of the U.S. in 2007)

de facto (segregation)

informal segregation that occurs without laws but because of other factors

asexuals

lack interest in sex

dominant (group)

majority group; holds the most power in a given society

Islamophobia

many Arabs faced this after 9/11

endogamous (marriage)

marrying a partner within the same social category

gross national income (GNI)

measures the current value of goods and services produced by a country; productive output

purchasing power parity (PPP)

measures the relative power a country has to purchase those same goods and services; buying power

occupational roles

men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics; women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as childcare, healthcare, and social work

symbolic interactionism (view on social stratification)

micro-level perspective; people's social standing affects their everyday interactions; people's appearance reflects their perceived social standing

social construction of race

the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable; race is a system of labeling that provides a source of identity

model minority

the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment (Asian Americans)

internal colonialism

the subordinate status of groups who are treated unequally within a nation (African Americans, Hispanics)

culture of prejudice

the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture

wealth

the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance

Sweden

thought to be the most liberal when it comes to attitudes about sex, including sexual practices and sexual openness; the country's permissive approach to sex has helped the country avoid some of the major social problems associated with sex

transsexuals

transgendered individuals who wish to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy—so that their physical being is better aligned with gender identity; may also be known as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM)

feminist theory

type of conflict theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues; uses the conflict approach to examine the maintenance of gender roles and inequalities

racism

type of prejudice that involves set beliefs about a specific racial group

exogamous (marriage)

union of spouses from different social categories (Prince William and commoner Kate Middleton)

gross national product (GNP)

used to rank countries according to their relative economic status

institutional discrimination

when a societal system has developed with an embedded disenfranchisement of a group (such as the U.S. military's historical nonacceptance of minority sexualities as recently experienced surrounding the "don't ask, don't tell" policy)

"doing gender"

when people perform tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, thus, gender is something we do or perform, not something we are (based on the work of West & Zimmerman)

structural mobility

when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder

conspicuous consumption

buying certain products to make a social statement about status

global stratification

compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries across the world

double standard

concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men

Indian castes

-Brahmins: educated priests and scholars -Kshatriyas: kings and warriors -Vaishyas: merchant and farmers -Shudras: peasants and laborers, craftspeople -Dalits: poor, untouchables, menial and unpleasant jobs

major agents of (gender) socialization

1. family 2. education 3. peer groups 4. mass media

class system

an open system that is based on both social factors and individual achievement

socioeconomic status (SES)

an overall ranking of people's positions based on their income, education, and occupation

berdache

anthropology term for individuals who occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as the opposite gender

gender roles

society's concept of how men and women are expected to act and how they should behave based on norms/standards created by society

Davis-Moore thesis

argued that the greater the functional importance of a social role, the greater must be the reward; social stratification represents the inherently unequal value of different work (functionalism)

intersection theory

Patricia Hill Collins; suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes; multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create the way we experience race

Loving v. Virginia (1967)

Supreme court case that declared anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional

Brown v. Board of Education

Supreme court case that ended the de jure segregation in the U.S.; declared that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Supreme court case; stated that "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional

racial-ethnic group

a category of people that has both distinctive physical and cultural characteristics (Asian American, Hispanic)

caste system

a closed stratification system in which people are born into their social standing and will remain in it their whole lives; residual presence in Indian society

"don't ask, don't tell"

a controversial policy that required homosexuals in the US military to keep their sexuality undisclosed.

gross domestic product (GDP)

a country's average national wealth per person; indicates a country's productivity and performance

downward mobility

a decrease in social class

intergenerational mobility

a difference in social class between different generations of a family

intragenerational mobility

a difference in social class between different members of the same generation

social stratification

a hierarchical ranking of people who have different access to valued resources; systems can be open or closed

sexuality

a person's capacity for sexual feelings

open system

based on achieved statuses; social classes are relatively fluid

sexual orientation

a person's emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex; typically divided into 4 categories: heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality

Queer Theory

a perspective that problematizes the manner in which we have been taught to think about sexual orientation; the perspective highlights the need for a more flexible and fluid conceptualization of sexuality; strives to question the ways society perceives and experiences sex, gender, and sexuality

power elite

a small group of white men who make the important decisions in U.S. society (C. Wright Mills)

expulsion

a subordinate group being forced, by a dominant group, to leave a certain area or country (Trail of Tears)

ethnicity

a term that describes shared culture—the practices, values, and beliefs of a group

prejudice

beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes that someone holds about a group; it is a prejudgment originating outside of actual experience

GLAAD (Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation)

advocates for homosexual rights and encourage governments and citizens to recognize the presence of sexual discrimination and work to prevent it

symbolic interactionism (gener roles)

aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction

class traits

also called class markers; the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class; often develop based on cultural behaviors that stem from the resources available within each class

Alfred Kinsey

among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight; created a six-point rating scale that ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual; wrote "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" (1948)

Millennium Project

an attempt to cut poverty worldwide by the year 2015; implemented in the UN in 2002 To reach the project's goal, planners in 2006 estimated that industrialized nations must set aside 0.7 percent of their gross national income—the total value of the nation's good and service, plus or minus income received from and sent to other nations—to aid in developing countries

Ku Klux Klan

an example of a racist organization; its members' belief in white supremacy has encouraged over a century of hate crime and hate speech

homophobia

an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals

meritocracy

an ideal system in which personal effort—or merit—determines social standing

upward mobility

an increase in social class

subordinate (group)

minority group; lack of power Wagley & Harris theory: a minority group is distinguished by five characteristics: (1) unequal treatment and less power over their lives, (2) distinguishing physical or cultural traits like skin color or language, (3) involuntary membership in the group, (4) awareness of subordination, and (5) high rate of in-group marriage.

closed system

mobility is limited due to ascribed statuses

stereotype

oversimplified ideas about groups of people; they are recycled from subordinate groups that have assimilated into society and are reused to describe newly subordinate groups

chattel slavery

people are bought and sold as commodities

ethnic group

people who identify with a common national origin or cultural heritage (Italian American)

sex

physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity

discrimination

prejudiced action against a group of people; individual or institutional

sexism

prejudiced beliefs that value one sex over another

Population Reference Bureau (PRB)

publishes an annual report (GNI PPP) that measures the relative economic well-being of all the world's countries

symbolic interactionism (race/ethnicity)

race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity

structural functionalism (racism/ethnicity)

racial and ethnic inequalities must have served an important function in order to exist as long as they have; racism and discrimination do contribute positively, but only to the dominant group

miscegenation

racial intermarriage

racial steering

real estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race

intergroup relations

relationships between different groups of people that range along a spectrum between tolerance and intolerance

Jim Crow laws

required segregated facilities for blacks and whites (U.S. Civil War era)

Industrial Revolution

saw the rise of vast inequalities between countries that were industrialized and those that were not

conflict theory (sexuality)

sexuality is another area in which power differentials are present and where dominant groups actively work to promote their worldview as well as their economic interests; there are two key dimensions to the debate over same-sex marriage—one ideological and the other economic

gender

social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female

conflict theory (gender roles)

social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups; it is difficult for women to rise above men, as dominant group members create the rules for success and opportunity in society

conflict theory (view on social stratification)

social stratification perpetuates inequality; capitalists own the means of production, and a system is in place to make business owners rich and keep workers poor

heteronormative (society)

society that accepts heterosexuality as the norm (like the U.S.)

Defense of Marriage Act

states that marriage between one man and one woman is the only domestic legal union that shall be valid or recognized

structural functionalism (sexuality)

stress the importance of regulating sexual behavior to ensure marital cohesion and family stability; the purpose of encouraging sexual activity in the confines of marriage is to intensify the bond between spouses and to ensure that procreation occurs within a stable, legally recognized relationship; homosexuality cannot be promoted on a large-scale as an acceptable substitute for heterosexuality

Friedrich Engels

suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force is also seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat due to women's dependence on men for the attainment of wages

Scapegoat Theory

suggests that the dominant group will displace their unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group (Hitler--Jewish people)

race

superficial physical differences that a particular society considers significant, while ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture

Herbert Blumer

symbolic interactionist; suggested that racial prejudice is formed through interactions between members of the dominant group: Without these interactions, individuals in the dominant group would not hold racist views

social mobility

the ability to change positions within a social stratification system

ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture is inherently superior to others

status consistency

the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual's rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation

genocide

the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group; the most toxic intergroup relationship (the Holocaust)

African Americans

the exemplar minority group in the U.S. whose ancestors did not come here by choice

gender identity

the extent to which one identifies as being either masculine or feminine; an individual's self-conception of being male or female based on his or her association with masculine or feminine gender roles

life chances

the extent to which people have positive experiences and can secure good things in life; a consequence of social stratification

white privilege

the fact that dominant groups often accept their experience as the normative (and hence, superior) experience

standard of living

the level of wealth available to a certain socioeconomic class in order to acquire the material necessities and comforts to maintain its lifestyle; based on factors such as income, employment, class, poverty rates, and affordability of housing

income

the money a person earns from work or investments

pluralism

the most tolerant form of intergroup relations; no distinction is made between minority and majority groups, but instead there's equal standing; represented by the ideal of the U.S. as a "salad bowl": a great mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the flavor of the whole; also called multiculturalism

Native Americans

the only nonimmigrant ethnic group in the U.S.

segregation

the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions

assimilation

the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture (learning the language, intermarrying); antithetical to the "salad bowl" created by pluralism; has been a function of immigration in the U.S.