Sociology final chapter 8: Race and ethnicity

Racial classifications have a historical basis traced back to slavery and white supremacy

Where did contemporary concepts of race come from? Evolved in the American colonies and spread throughout the overseas territories Race was a form of social identification and stratification in the New World There real meaning rested in political and social realities of the time In the 18th Century, the English began to have wider experiences with varied populations and gradually developed attitudes and beliefs according to physical and cultural differences These attitudes benefited white men while disadvantaging others Race emerged as a social classification that: created race as a social identity that emphasized human separateness and differences led to "the invention of the white race" led to social policies that supported the rights of English, European backgrounds while restricting others was used to justify (1) the conquest and brutal treatment of Native Americans and (2) the retention and perpetuation of slavery for imported Africans (3) discrimination against other immigrant groups (Asians, Latinos, etc.)

Milliken v. Bradley

1974 Milliken v. Bradley Supreme Court ruled that students could only be bused across district lines when evidence of de jure segregation across multiple districts exist De facto segregation due to factors other than official policies and decisions De jure segregation is triggered by officials' policies or decisions that either create or maintain racial segregation. Exempted suburban districts from burden of desegregation - helps bring about white flight

The "no-race" theory

A "no race" theory is now widely accepted by physical anthropology and human genetics: (1) Biological variability exists but this variability does not conform to the discrete packages labeled races. (2) So-called racial characteristics are not transmitted as complexes. (3) Races do not exist because isolation of groups has been infrequent; populations have always interbred.

Minority group

A minority group: a group whose members ... share distinct physical or cultural characteristics ... are denied access to power and resources available to other groups ... are accorded fewer rights, privileges, and opportunities "minority" in this context is NOT a numerical distinction, but one of power

authoritarian personality theory (theory of Prejudice)

Argues that people with authoritarian personalities are more likely to hold prejudice viewpoints Authoritarian personality: a personality marked by - a rigid adherence to conventional lifestyles and values admiration of power and toughness in interpersonal relationships submission to authority cynicism an emphasis on obedience a fear of things that are different Develops in childhood in response to harsh parental discipline However, it is unclear whether people with these personalities are also taught prejudice by their parents

Racial classifications change over time and are flexible

Racial categories change over time. Look at the census: the categories of races change very frequently. 2000 was the first year in which respondents were allowed to select "one or more race" in the racial category. Prior to 2000, respondents were forced to select only one race, even if they would describe themselves as bi- or multiracial. 1990 Census White Black American Indian and Alaskan Native Asian & Pacific Islander Other 2000 Census White Black or African American American Indian and Alaska Native Asian Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Some other race Two or more races Racial categories never have firm boundaries. For example, there is no set regulation for determining racial identity. A person may have ancestry from mixed descent, but may not identify with that descent. Or a person who was born in the United States, and whose parents and grandparents were also born in the United States, might classify him- or herself as Cuban because a great-grandparent was from Cuba. Racial categories are flexible. Racial classifications are arbitrary & depend on criteria used by person grouping people together

social construct

Social construct: a concept that has no objective reality but rather is what people decide it is

Stereotype

Stereotype: exaggerated, simplified, and unreliable generalizations about people because of their membership in a particular group (one source of prejudice) Does not take into account individual differences within the group Often acquired second hand...and just don't hold... but become substitutes for facts Leads to faulty thinking and erroneous conclusions Pre-judging using stereotypes undermines the very idea that people should be judged on individual merit

culture theory of prejudice (theory of Prejudice)

Stresses the role of conformity and socialization in acquiring prejudicial beliefs Individuals hold prejudices because we live in a "culture of prejudice" that has taught us to view certain categories of people as "better" or "worse" than others Once patterns of prejudice and discrimination become legitimated, they can then be transmitted to new members through the process of socialization This culture of prejudice is acquired during socialization (with many potential sources of prejudice such as family, media, schools, peers, etc.)

Structural (or systemic) racism

Structural racism is racial bias across institutions and society. It's the cumulative and compounded effects of an array of factors that systematically privilege white people and disadvantage people of color. Example: The "racial wealth divide" (where whites have many times the wealth of people of color) results from generations of discrimination and racial inequality in a number of institutions (i.e. economy; education; housing; law/criminal justice system; etc.) Dimensions of structural racism: 1. History: cumulative impacts of roots and foundation of white domination in the U.S. 2. Culture: normalization and replication of racism in our everyday lives (ex: representation in the media) 3. Interconnected institutions and policies: compounding relationships and rules that legitimate and reinforce racism. 4. Racial ideology: dominant ideas and myths that perpetuate racial hierarchies (ex: post-racial ideology Structural racism/discrimination is evident when bias occurs across interdependent institutions

One drop rule

The one-drop rule, which evolved from U.S. laws forbidding miscegenation, was the belief that "one drop" of black blood makes a person black. Application of this rule aimed to keep the white population "pure" and lumped anyone with "black blood" into one category. Starting in 1785, white = less than one-fourth African ancestry In 1910, white = less than one-sixteenth African ancestry. In 1924, the "Act to Preserve Racial Integrity" (so-called "one-drop" rule) required that a white person have no traceable African ancestry (used in part to criminalize and prevent interracial relationships) **This rule was also critical in the Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson, which upheld the Jim Crow laws.

individual vs. institutional racism **understand the difference and be able to identify examples of each

Institutional: MUCH BIGGER PROBLEM! sometimes harder to see and understand and change Institutional racism/discrimination is evident in most institutions including: Education, employment, housing, criminal justice, health, and environment. Occurs within institutions. discriminatory treatment, unfair policies and practices, and inequitable opportunities and impacts, based on one's social status, such as race. the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operation of society May be intentional or unintentional Some EXAMPLES of Institutional discrimination: 1. Educational systems: Background: separate-but-equal doctrine (established by Plessy v. Ferguson decision) legalized segregation in access in many public areas including schools. It was not until 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education that the Supreme Court overturned any part of Plessy. Also, another example is in Labor markets, criminal justice system, and housing discrimination/segregation Individual Discrimination: Refers to discrimination that individuals practice in their everyday lives Usually because they are prejudiced However, even individuals who do not hold explicit prejudicial beliefs may hold implicit biases that may or may not lead to discrimination Human beings all have cognitive biases that can lead to prejudice and discrimination Ex: Implicit Association Test

Loving v Virginia

Interracial marriage remained illegal throughout some states in the United States until 1967 the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled, in Loving v. Virginia, that anti-miscegenation laws are unconstitutional. With this ruling, these laws were invalidated in the remaining 16 states that still had them at that time.

Understand what is meant by race being a social construct

Irish, Jews, Mexicans, Filipinos and Hindus have all been regarded as races in America...but now they are not....what does this say about the idea of race? It is a social construction races are created, lived & transformed by social actors embedded in certain historical circumstances (D) We make them up...Society makes them up.. They are not rooted in nature...but in our culture Racialized social structure: America produced a race-based system of slavery and subsequently a race-based distribution of political, legal, and social rights US society has been built on racial differences (as opposed to other societies)

Is racism predictable?

Nate Silver: How does race affect votes? (VIDEO) What variables are the most significant predictors of an individual holding racist beliefs? Why are they significant? Video is on McCain and Barack voting process for presidency IV: Exposure to diversity, education, interaction, neighborhood DV: Racist, beliefs and actions, voted McCain AND said "yes" race was a factor in their decision.

Prejudice

Prejudice: a set of negative attitudes, beliefs, and judgments about whole categories of people, and about individual members of those categories May or may not lead to discrimination

Race

Race: a group of people who share a set of characteristics — usually physical ones — and are said to share a common bloodline. Race is a social construct that changes over time and across different contexts; based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people. Race is more meaningful to us on a social level than it is on a biological level. However, race is still used to classify people, and sometimes race is a basis for differential treatment of individuals or groups of people. Racism: the belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal human traits. used to justify practices involving domination and exploitation of particular racial groups can lead to discrimination involves intergroup privilege, power, and oppression

Brown v Board of Education

Background: separate-but-equal doctrine (established by Plessy v. Ferguson decision) legalized segregation in access in many public areas including schools. It was not until 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education that the Supreme Court overturned any part of Plessy. In Topeka, Kansas, a black 3rd grader named Linda Brown had to walk one mile through a Railroad switchyard to get to her elementary school. There was a white elementary school only 7 blocks away. She was turned down for enrollment in the white school. Brown's father went to McKinley Burnett, head of Topeka's branch of the NAACP. He agreed to help, he felt that they had the "right plaintiff at the right time". Issue: Schools were separate but NOT equal Textbooks: White Schools received the new books Black Schools received the books the white schools no longer needed (hand-me-downs); black students also had to share textbooks since there were more black students per class Teachers: White teachers received more pay than the black teachers. Buildings: White schools were in better shape than black schools The Board of Education's defense was that segregation in the schools would prepare them for segregation in adulthood. They argued that segregated schools were not detrimental. They used examples such as Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington, and George Washington Carver. On one hand the Appeals Court judges agreed with the plaintiff, but on the other hand Plessy v. Ferguson set a legal a precedent. They ruled in favor of the Board of Education. The court cited the precedent of Plessy v. Ferguson as the main reason. The Plaintiffs Appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. Main argument: That separate school systems for blacks and whites were inherently unequal, and thus violate the "equal protection clause" of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In a unanimous vote, 9-0, the Supreme Court ruled: "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. . ." "To separate them [children in grade and high schools] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be undone. American schools desegregated. Most did so peacefully, but other areas had major violence (especially in the south). Some states even dragged their feet. Integration wasn't completed, totally, until 1970's

group threat theory (theory of Prejudice)

Competitive situations can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Argues that prejudice comes from competition over jobs and other resources as well as from disagreement over various political issues When groups compete for resources, power, etc., it is easy for them to be prejudiced against eachother

Discrimination

Discrimination: action often based on prejudice. denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of certain groups due to prejudice or some other arbitrary reason 1964 Civil Rights Act - banned discrimination in most areas of society (employment, public accommodations, education, etc) Discrimination in employment, housing and other spheres of society is illegal...but that does not mean it no longer occurs ***While prejudice is an internal evaluation/attitude, discrimination is an action.

Ethnicity

Ethnicity: a shared common historical and cultural heritage and sense of group identity and belongingness. is voluntary, self-defined, nonhierarchical, fluid, cultural, and not so closely linked with power differences. An ethnic identity becomes racialized when it is subsumed under a forced label, racial marker, or "otherness." (i.e. racialization) This is why population estimates vary by whether you are using just race (72-77% white) or mutually exclusive race/ethnicity (61%-63% white, non-Hispanic) categories

frustration theory (i.e. scapegoat theory) (theory of Prejudice)

Frustration and aggression arise when people become frustrated by their inability to achieve sought after goals. This frustration and aggression is then turned upon others (i.e. minorities, etc.), blaming particular groups for their own misfortune displaced aggression: directing their hostility against a powerless group to compensate for their feelings of insecurity and fear Scapegoat—a person or category of people, typically with little power, whom other people unfairly blame for their own troubles and who pay penalties for 'causing' society's ills

How genes do not correlate with racial classifications

Genetics has found that genes do not correlate with conventional racial classifications 95% of all genetic material is identical among all individuals Of the 5% of genetic material that varies among individuals: - Individual differences account for 93-95% of the 5% - Group differences account for 3-5% of the 5% Example: Select 2 random blacks and compare genes and select 2 random whites and compare genes. Likely to find more variation between 2 whites than between 1 black and 1 white ***More within-group variation than between-group variation in genetics

Plessy v Ferguson

In 1892, Homer Plessy (pictured at right) took a seat in the "whites only" car of a train and refused to move. (Plessy was 1/8th Black) He was arrested, and convicted for breaking Louisiana's segregation law. Plessy appealed, claiming that he had been denied equal protection under the law. The Supreme Court handed down its decision on May 18, 1896. *one drop rule came into play with this court case. The Supreme Court ruled that separate-but-equal facilities for blacks and whites did not violate the Constitution Legalized the implementation of state-mandated segregation laws Supreme Court Justice Henry B. Brown speaking for majority, "the object of the 14th amendment ... could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color... or a commingling of the two races." Justice John Marshall Harlan dissented from the majority opinion, "In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law...the seeds of race hate...planted under the sanction of law...the thin disguise of 'equal' accommodations...will not mislead anyone, nor atone for the wrong this day done."

Symbolic ethnicity

ethnicity that is individualistic in nature and without real social cost for the individual. Ex. I have Irish heritage, but it only becomes relevant on various occasions such as St. Patrick's day.

Race Ideology

imposed on conquered and enslaved people an identity as the lowest status groups in society along with myths attached to them such as being inferior in terms of morals, intelligence, behavior, and biology. Even after the end of slavery, these beliefs persist since they have become institutionalized Racial ideologies have been diffused among American society as well as through much of the world including the colonized peoples of the Third World and among white populations

Racialization

the formation of a new racial identity in which new ideological boundaries of difference are drawn around a formerly unnoticed group of people. A recent example of racialization is the anti-Muslim backlash in America since 9/11. Being Muslim is linked in the minds of Americans to being Arab, so anyone who "looks Arab" is thought to be Muslim and therefore anti-American. (Even though "Muslim" refers to follower of Islam - a religion)