Sociology Midterm

Midrange Theory

A theory that attempts to predict how certain social institutions tend to function. This theory is neither microsociology nor macrosociology. (ex. Theory of democracy, or theory of household). Midrange theory can generate hypotheses that can be tested by analysing the real world.

Quantitative methods

obtain information that is already in or can be converted into numerical form. These kinds of methods are suitable for questions examining two variables and whether one variable affects another variable.

Historical Methods

researchers collect written work, newspaper articles, journals, etc., from the time period they would like to study. This method is often used to study social movements.

Reliability

the likelihood of obtaining consistent results using the same method (ex. scale is 10lbs off so it's not very valid, but if you continue to get the same result, it is reliable).

Operationalization

the process of assigning a precise method for measuring a term being examined in a particular study. For example, if a study is focusing on poverty, it is important to note if the researcher used the U.S. poverty line or the U.N. poverty line.

Functionalism

theory that various social institutions and processes in society exist to serve some important function to keep society running. These functions may be explicit or hidden. American sociology was largely characterized by these theory for much of the twentieth century.

Reverse Causality

when they think A is causing B, but in fact B is causing A

Positivist Sociology

a strain within sociology that believes the social world can be described and predicted by certain describable relationships (similar to social physics).

Dependent variable

a variable that is affected by another variable. If a researcher were to study whether age of marriage affected divorce rates, age would be the independent variable while divorce rates would be the dependent variable. When researchers propose a relationship between two variables, it's usually stated with a direction. If they move in the same direction, it would be positive direction. If they moved in opposite directions, it would be a negative direction.

Social Self

(concept established by Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead). Cooley coined the term "looking-glass self" and claimed that the self emerged from interactive social process. We envision how others' perceive us and we gauge their responses to our presentations.

Social Institution

A complex group of interdependent positions that, together, perform a social role and reproduce themselves over time; also defined in a narrow sense as any institution in a society that works to shape the behavior of the groups of people within it

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Criticized Marx for focusing exclusively on economy and social class. Argued that social analysis should consider other influences such as culture, economics, and politics.

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

English social theorist first to translate Comate to English. Wrote Theory and Practice of Society in America (1837). Also wrote How to Observe Morals and Manners (1838) in which she challenged the institution of marriage, claiming it was based on the assumption of the inferiority of women. One of the earliest feminist social scientists writing in English.

Jane Addams (1860-1935)

Many of the Chicago School's movement thinkers drew some of their insights from Addams' applications. She founded the Hull House. This is where the ideas of Chicago School were put into practice and tested.

Survey Research

More structured interview with questions relating to topic. Can be done anonymously and distributed widely which leads to gathering information from a wider sample.

Culture

Sum of social categories and concepts we recognize. Everything but nature. Set of beliefs, traditions, and practices.

Interview

Used for qualitative research. In open ended interviews it is important to know when to push and when to back off.

Social Ecology

a basic premise that humans' behaviors and personalities were shaped by their social and physical environment.

Microsociology

a branch of sociology the seeks to understand local interactional contexts; its methods of choice are ethnographic, generally including participant observation and in-depth interviews. There is a focus on face-to-face encounters.

Symbolic Interactionism

a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions. The idea that people act in response to the meaning that signs and social signals have for them. Groundwork for this theory was laid by Goffman's theory of social interaction (presentation of self, backstage vs. frontstage).

Participant Observation

a qualitative research method that seeks to uncover the meanings people give their social actions by observing their behavior in practice.

Anomie

a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises when we can no longer expect life to be predictable; too little social regulation; normlessness.

Independent variable

also known as causal variable, it exerts influence on another variable.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

argued that the division of labor didn't just affect work and productivity, had social and moral implications as well. Division of labor helps society determine its form of social solidarity (unity, social group). Durkheim argues that suicide conditioned by social forces: the degree to which we are integrated into group life, and the degree to which our lives follow routine

Ethnocentrism

belief that one's own culture is superior to others, and tendency to view all other cultures from the perspective of one's own.

qualitative methods

cannot be easily converted into numeric form. There is an analysis of words and narratives and does not necessarily have to be used to test a hypothesis. These methods are useful for studying questions that focus on the meanings and what forces make people tick. Distinction between quantitative and qualitative is a false dichotomy.

Causality

change in one variable causes change in another variable. In order to know causal story, it is necessary to know causal mechanism (how does A cause B?). There are three factors needed to establish causality: correlation, time order, and the ruling out of other alternative explanations.

Postmodernism

compared to symbolic interactionism, postmodernism is the notion that these shared meanings have eroded. (ex. Red light can have multiple meanings to different groups or individuals). No longer is there one version of history that is correct. Everyone is a symbolic interactionist and decided that objective phenomena are social constructions

Macrosociology

concerned with social dynamics at higher level of analysis--across the breadth of society. (ex. Immigration policy, gender norms, or how educational system interacts with labor market). Statistical analysis most typically method used for research, yet macrosociology is not limited to this.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

created theory called "historical materialism." Marx believe it was primarily conflicts between classes that drove social change throughout history. Marx saw history as an account of man's struggle to gain control over and later dominate his environment.

Cultural lag

cultural norms cannot keep up with cultural change. This causes us to feel scattered and uncertain of how we should act (ex. norms of internet usage in classrooms).

Subculture

cultural patterns set apart from some segments of society's population (ex. LGBTQ+ culture). Sometimes subcultures become co-opted by dominant culture, especially music. Once co-opted, something else tends to replace it within subculture because it is no longer seen as authentic.

Feminist Theory

emerged from women's movement in 1960's and 1970's. Feminist theory shares many ideas with Marxist theory. Emphasis on women's experiences. Ann Oakley argued that much of what we attribute to biological sex differences can be traced to behaviors learned and internalized through socialization.

Social Constructions

entities that exist because people behave as if they exist and whose existences are perpetuated as people and social institutions act in accordance with this widely agreed upon formal or informal norms of behavior associated with that identity.

George Simmel (1858-1918)

established formal sociology--sociology of pure numbers. Simmel focused on things such as the fundamental differences between a group of two versus a group of three or higher. His work influenced the field of urban sociology and cultural sociology.

Reflexivity

when a researcher analyzes and considers the effect their role in, and effect on, their study.

Social sciences

have a set of logical and systematic/fixed documented methods to study people and societies. It is important to document the data collection because it allows researchers replicate studies.

Components of Culture

ideologies: set of ideas, ideals. symbol: anything that carries particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture language: a complex system of symbols, constantly changing and evolving norms: expected behaviors, rules that guide how one is to behave sanctions: what happens if we don't follow norms taboo: behaviors universally condemned (ex. cannibalism) folkways: violation of expected behaviors, yet not as extreme as taboo

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

invented "social physics" or "positivism", according to Comte, "positivism rose out of a need to make moral sense of social order in a time of declining religious authority." The job of the sociologist is to develop a secular (nonreligious) morality.

Experimental Methods

methods that seek to alter the social landscape in a very specific way in order to see how that alters behavior. The results are then compared to control group.

Cultural scripts

modes of behavior and understanding that are not universal. Margaret Mead's "Coming of Age in Samoa" (1928) noted that young Samoan women enjoyed and engaged in casual sex. This caused outrage in the United State and is what introduced the idea of cultural scripts. It opposes the idea that beliefs derive from biological programming.

Correlation/association

simultaneous variation in two various. They tend to move together in the same direction (ex. low income and poor health). Correlation does not mean that A causes B. We could say that A might possible cause B, but there are many different factors that could be at play. There could be a factor C that is affecting both A and B that the researcher is unaware of.

Metaphysical Stage

society and human behavior is governed by natural, biological instincts. We needed to strip away the layers of society to better understand how our basic needs and instincts established the foundation of society

Theological Stage

society was the result of divine will, AKA things were the way they were because it was God's plan. Scholars would consult bible

Inductive

starts with empirical observations and then works to form a theory.

Deductive

starts with selecting a social phenomena of interest and the researcher has to choose the variables they would like to focus on (ex. crime rates, level of education, income).

Content Analysis

subtype of historical methods, systematic analysis of content in recorded material rather than the structure.

Cultural relativism

taking into account the differences across cultures without passing judgment or assigning value. This is important for businesses that run on a global scale. What about when local traditions conflict with universally recognized human rights? This sparks major political debate around topics such as genital mutilation, domestic violence, and medical practices versus religious beliefs in treating the ill.

Sociological Imagination

the ability to connect the most basic, intimate aspects of an individual's life to seemingly impersonal and remote historical forces

Verstehen

the basis of interpretive sociology which researchers imagine themselves experiencing the life positions of the social actors they want to understand, rather than treating those people as objects to be examined. In order to understand why people do things they way they do, a sociologist must understand the meanings people attach to their actions.

Validity

the extent to which an instrument measures what you intended it to (ex. scale is not valid for measuring height).

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than than one we studied.

Conflict Theory

the idea that conflict between competing interests are the driving force of social change and society in general. Drawn from ideas from Marx. Many proponents of this theory believe that such social change occurs only through revolution and war, not evolution. Today sociologists see society as having aspects both from functionalism and conflict theory.

Double Consciousness

this concept is used to describe the two behavior scripts used by African Americans (can extend to other oppressed groups), one for moving through the world and the other incorporating the external opinions of prejudiced onlookers. "Sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others."

Comparative Research

two or more entities (ex. countries) which are similar on many levels but differ in one question, are compared to learn about the dimension that differs between them. Typically used with cross-national studies.

Nonmaterial culture

values, beliefs, behaviors and social norms.

Scientific stage

we would develop social physics to identify scientific laws that govern human behavior. Comete believed we would understand how social institutions worked if we figured out their "equations"